From Pearls to Oil: How the Oil Industry Came to the United Arab Emirates

David Heard

doi:10.2307/jj.29278475

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Bibliographic data

Edition: 1/2024
Copyright Year: 2024
ISBN-Print: 978-3-95994-176-1
ISBN-Online: 978-3-95994-177-8
Publisher: Gerlach Press, Berlin
Language: English
Pages: 651
Product Type: Monograph

1. Contents No access
2. List of Maps No access
3. List of Photographs No access
4. Common Acronyms No access
5. Names and Transliterations No access
6. Acknowledgements No access
7. Foreword (2025 Edition) No access
1. Preamble No access
2. The United Arab Emirates No access
3. The economy No access
4. The historical record No access
5. The story according to the oil company No access
6. Sources of information No access
1. 1.1 Where is Abu Dhabi? How did one get there? No access
2. 1.2 The United Arab Emirates and the people No access
3. 1.3 Governance: the sheikhs and authority No access
4. 1.4 Only a man of the desert can really appreciate fresh water No access
5. 1.5 The economy: wealth, poverty and hope No access
6. 1.6 The British as administrators were at arm’s-length No access
7. 1.7 The Political Resident and the Political Agent appeared to be all-powerful No access
8. 1.8 The distant British authorities in Bombay and London No access
9. 1.9 The arrival of the British oil company in 1935 No access
10. 1.10 How the first geologists saw Abu Dhabi No access
11. 1.11 Early visitors: administrators, adventurers, academics No access
1. 2.1 Oil before the motor car. What use was it? No access
2. 2.2 William Knox D’Arcy, the financier and armchair speculator No access
3. 2.3 George Reynolds: the engineer, the man on the spot and his roughnecks No access
4. 2.4 Lieutenant Arnold Wilson, later Sir Arnold Wilson, MP No access
5. 2.5 From the Anglo Persian Oil Company (APOC) to British Petroleum (BP) No access
6. 2.6 We return to where it started in Iraq with Gulbenkian (Mr 5 per cent) No access
7. 2.7 The Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC) and the Red Line agreement No access
8. 2.8 A summary of developments in the Gulf’s oil industry No access
9. 2.9 The Trucial Coast and two very unusual men No access
10. 2.10 Haji Abdulla Fadhel Williamson, the adventurer No access
11. 2.11 Major Frank Holmes, the concession broker No access
12. 2.12 The IPC/PCL manager, Longrigg, and his view of Holmes No access
13. 2.13 The attitude of the British Government towards the Trucial Coast No access
14. 2.14 How big is Abu Dhabi, according to HMG? No access
15. 2.15 What did the company know about the size of Abu Dhabi? No access
16. 2.16 And what the company should have known No access
17. 2.17 My conclusion No access
1. 3.1 Lord Curzon sent a geologist from India to the Gulf No access
2. 3.2 A first for APOC and Reynolds was drilling No access
3. 3.3 From where does crude oil come? No access
4. 3.4 How do they find oil and who is involved? No access
5. 3.5 Back to some history and the next initiative No access
6. 3.6 After the First World War, APOC sent Lees to the Trucial Coast No access
7. 3.7 The Trucial Coast within the Red Line No access
8. 3.8 Abu Dhabi needs fresh water No access
9. 3.9 The first visit of Cox, an APOC geologist, to Abu Dhabi No access
10. 3.10 Sheikh Shakhbut’s priority was water No access
11. 3.11 Cox was also interested in oil prospects No access
12. 3.12 British exclusion of foreigners and French anger No access
13. 3.13 Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC) as the vehicle for expansion No access
14. 3.14 IPC create a new company for work outside Iraq, the Petroleum Concessions Limited (PCL) No access
15. 3.15 Cox’s second visit to Abu Dhabi - Abu Dhabi has water after rain No access
16. 3.16 APOC pass the responsibility for work on the Trucial Coast to IPC but IPC/PCL are not ready No access
17. 3.17 A visit to Ra’s al-Khaimah and the first option agreement No access
18. 3.18 The Sheikhdom of Abu Dhabi and the Ruler visits Iraq No access
19. 3.19 Holmes gives the impression of being everywhere No access
20. 3.20 And Haji Williamson negotiates the first Abu Dhabi agreement No access
21. 3.21 The Trucial Coast option agreements No access
1. 4.1 PCL consider activity on the Trucial Coast No access
2. 4.2 The India Office approve the transfer of the options to PCL No access
3. 4.3 HMG tell PCL that they may start negotiations, but not yet No access
4. 4.4 AIOC send letters to the Rulers while PCL are over-optimistic No access
5. 4.5 PCL believed that ‘Concessions would be obtained in two to three months’ No access
6. 4.6 India Office conditional approval to start negotiations, but not yet No access
7. 4.7 And the Political Resident tells the Rulers No access
8. 4.8 Why Holmes? No access
9. 4.9 Was it Longrigg who promoted Holmes’ candidacy? No access
10. 4.10 Holmes’ appointment did not find favour among other British No access
11. 4.11 What about the Rulers and other people in the Gulf? No access
12. 4.12 The three active players, two Hajis and a Major No access
13. 4.13 The Bahrain merchant, Haji Yusuf bin Ahmed Kanoo No access
14. 4.14 Holmes’ activities in the Gulf prior to 1936 No access
15. 4.15 Holmes receives his commission from Skliros in London No access
16. 4.16 Holmes arrives in the Gulf while HMG’s bureaucratic wheels turn slowly No access
17. 4.17 Holmes did not meet Haji Williamson for debriefing No access
18. 4.18 HMG’s preoccupation with security No access
19. 4.19 The company and the size of the Rulers’ lands No access
1. 5.1 Holmes waiting to get to work No access
2. 5.2 The problem of fixing the borders of the sheikhdoms No access
3. 5.3 Holmes receives a visitor No access
4. 5.4 The Political Resident in Bushire says that negotiations may start No access
5. 5.5 Holmes goes to Dubai for the first time No access
6. 5.6 Mysterious letters at Ra’s al-Khaimah No access
7. 5.7 Holmes remains comfortable sitting in Dubai and Sharjah No access
8. 5.8 Family disagreements and a murder attempt No access
9. 5.9 Holmes sends a letter with a messenger to Abu Dhabi No access
10. 5.10 Holmes leaves the Trucial Coast for rest and recuperation No access
11. 5.11 PCL set up a base in Bahrain No access
12. 5.12 Holmes tries to rid himself of Haji Williamson No access
13. 5.13 How far does a Ruler’s authority extend geographically? No access
14. 5.14 Packer arrives in Bahrain and PCL get to work No access
15. 5.15 Kanoo the loyal businessman was very helpful No access
16. 5.16 Panic as opposition agents threaten No access
17. 5.17 HMG involvement at all stages No access
1. 6.1 Coaling stations to refineries and the Refinery Agreement No access
2. 6.2 The Political Agreement. Dubai first No access
3. 6.3 The Rulers have to give security assurances for PCL in the desert No access
4. 6.4 Can a Ruler assert himself in the interior of the land? No access
5. 6.5 Winter 1936-37, the first major geological survey on the Trucial Coast No access
6. 6.6. The geologists arrive and get to work No access
7. 6.7 And what was the result of the geologists’ efforts? No access
8. 6.8 And what did Haji Williamson have to say? No access
9. 6.9 The geologists become impatient with Haji Williamson No access
10. 6.10 The geological report for winter 1936-37 No access
11. 6.11 The new company, PCL, dispense with the two experienced Hajis No access
12. 6.12 Holmes returns to the Gulf No access
13. 6.13 Holmes fails to deliver the first agreement (Dubai) No access
14. 6.14 The political strong arm No access
15. 6.15 Packer in Bahrain, ignored by Holmes No access
16. 6.16 Borders are an issue No access
1. 7.1 Haji Williamson has a problem in Dubai No access
2. 7.2 Haji is banned from Dubai No access
3. 7.3 Skliros and Longrigg in London support Holmes No access
4. 7.4 What were the other Rulers thinking of PCL? No access
5. 7.5 Intrigue, and the pressure grows on Haji Williamson No access
6. 7.6 Haji Williamson calls in at Bahrain on his way home to Basra No access
7. 7.7 Holmes and the Dubai concession No access
8. 7.8 Dubai Agreement signed and the Ruler sees the Political Agreement for the first time No access
9. 7.9 A few concurrent developments. Holmes goes to Sharjah No access
10. 7.10 The Political Agent hears alarming words from Sheikh Shakhbut No access
11. 7.11 PCL are a British company No access
12. 7.12 Haji Williamson to be denied a visa to the Trucial Coast No access
13. 7.13 Haji Williamson treated unfairly No access
14. 7.14 HMG were active too No access
15. 7.15 Was Holmes really not trying, or did he have other ideas? No access
16. 7.16 No concession for Holmes at Sharjah? No access
17. 7.17 The ‘trump card’ No access
18. 7.18 And back to Holmes in Sharjah No access
19. 7.19 Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr, Ruler of Sharjah, is ready to sign but now HMG are not ready No access
20. 7.20 And so to Ra’s al-Khaimah No access
21. 7.21 Holmes sends a letter to Abu Dhabi No access
22. 7.22 Holmes leaves the Trucial Coast, never to return No access
1. 8.1 Holmes has gone and Fowle orders a halt in negotiations No access
2. 8.2 Lermitte, PCL’s new negotiator No access
3. 8.3 HMG deal the ‘trump card’ and the Ruler of Ra’s al-Khaimah reacts No access
4. 8.4 Lermitte in the dark No access
5. 8.5 Events take a surprising turn as Sheikh Shakhbut and Kanoo act No access
6. 8.6 But Longrigg in London and Fowle in Bushire are not so interested No access
7. 8.7 Lermitte’s first visit to the Trucial Coast and he calls on Sheikh Shakhbut No access
8. 8.8 Ruler of Sharjah signed at last No access
9. 8.9 And on to Ra’s al-Khaimah No access
10. 8.10 PCL want to send in the geologists again No access
11. 8.11 But Fowle refuses to let the geologists loose No access
12. 8.12 What about the borders? The territorial grab No access
13. 8.13 Do not apportion blame for slow progress No access
14. 8.14 Some Arab press, and Abdur Razzaq, the Residency Agent in Sharjah No access
15. 8.15 Longrigg comes to the Trucial Coast - not quite No access
16. 8.16 Aerial surveys No access
17. 8.17 So what had PCL achieved by the end of 1937? No access
1. 9.1 Longrigg’s brief visit to the Gulf - all at sea No access
2. 9.2 The Political Resident Fowle goes ashore while Longrigg sails to Bahrain No access
3. 9.3 Longrigg and the aerial survey No access
4. 9.4 Sheikh Shakhbut bin Sultan, Ruler of Abu Dhabi, and the ‘trump card’ No access
5. 9.5 Sheikh Shakhbut and PCL No access
6. 9.6 Sheikh Shakhbut receives Lermitte kindly but hardens his stance No access
7. 9.7 How was Lermitte getting on with the other Rulers on the Trucial Coast? No access
8. 9.8 Haji Williamson was never forgotten on the Trucial Coast No access
9. 9.9 Who was the ‘chief obstructionist’ on the Coast? No access
10. 9.10 Was Sheikh Shakhbut being difficult? No access
11. 9.11 Sheikh Shakhbut collected tax, he did not trade No access
12. 9.12 Sheikh Shakhbut’s concerns No access
13. 9.13 Holmes’ presence is ‘undesirable’ No access
14. 9.14 What were HMG doing? No access
15. 9.15 What were PCL doing in London? No access
16. 9.16 IPC in London name a new company PD(TC) No access
17. 9.17 And what were the geologists doing? No access
1. 10.1 An aerial survey would be very useful No access
2. 10.2 PCL in London No access
3. 10.3 IPC/PCL’s other operations on the Arabian Peninsula No access
4. 10.4 HMG challenged but still in command No access
5. 10.5 Planning a trip for the geologists - and frustration No access
6. 10.6. A PCL geological party sets out from Muscat while the Trucial States party is stalled No access
7. 10.7 Longrigg comes to the Trucial Coast - at last No access
8. 10.8 An unexpected breakthrough in Abu Dhabi (of sorts) No access
9. 10.9 Excitement and some geology near Buraimi/Al Ain No access
10. 10.10 Thompson’s party arrives from Muscat No access
11. 10.11 T. F. Williamson in Buraimi No access
12. 10.12 Life gets tough for Williamson in Buraimi No access
13. 10.13 Williamson’s geological report on the Sheikhdom of Buraimi No access
14. 10.14 And what did HMG think of PCL’s geological jaunt No access
15. 10.15 Landing ground again No access
16. 10.16 Longrigg still in Sharjah No access
1. 11.1 Longrigg the enigma No access
2. 11.2 Longrigg’s first visit to Abu Dhabi No access
3. 11.3 Longrigg breaks off negotiations to go to Bahrain for forty-eight hours No access
4. 11.4 Sheikh Shakhbut was not alone at the meetings with Longrigg No access
5. 11.5 Negotiations resume with Sheikh Shakhbut bin Sultan No access
6. 11.6 Sheikh Shakhbut and Longrigg reach agreement No access
7. 11.7 HMG have some criticisms of the agreement No access
8. 11.8 What was the Groups’ attitude in London? No access
9. 11.9 The agreement No access
10. 11.10 Meanwhile, what was Lermitte doing? No access
11. 11.11 PCL plan to send the geologists back to work No access
12. 11.12 Sheikh Shakhbut is going to be very helpful No access
13. 11.13 But there is a price to pay No access
14. 11.14 The geologists are to be confined to the Trucial Coast No access
15. 11.15 War breaks out in September 1939 No access
16. 11.16 The geological map No access
17. 11.17 Lermitte guards the silver at Dubai, while Sheikh Shakhbut asks for more No access
Epilogue No access Pages 413 - 416
1. Journals and papers No access
1. Appendix 1: The Red Line Agreement No access
2. Appendix 2: Nationality Clause No access
3. Appendix 3: Dickson on Holmes No access
4. Appendix 4: Skliros to the Groups 7/3/'35 No access
5. Appendix 5: Cox’s first visit - report on water supply 12/1/'35 No access
6. Appendix 6: Cox’s second visit No access
7. Appendix 7: Report on Ra’s al-Khaimah 10/8/’35 No access
8. Appendix 8: Dubai option, Arabic. October '35 No access
9. Appendix 9: The Trucial Oman Coast 1/9/'35 No access
10. Appendix 10: Abu Dhabi option. D’Arcy to Sheikh Shakhbut 5/1/'36 No access
11. Appendix 11: Sheikh Shakhbut’s reply to D’Arcy, English 5/1/'36 No access
12. Appendix 12: Sheikh Shakhbut’s reply to D’Arcy, Arabic No access
13. Appendix 13: Lefroy to Skliros 23/1/'36 No access
14. Appendix 14: Kanoo to Clegg, APOC 16/6/'36 No access
15. Appendix 15: Longrigg’s note ‘villages’ 17/4/'36 No access
16. Appendix 16: Holmes’ Sharjah telegrams 3-4/8/'36 No access
17. Appendix 17: To Skliros ‘Gulf littoral’ 29/7/'36 No access
18. Appendix 18: Preliminary report 24/10/'36 No access
19. Appendix 19: Prog. of operations and HW’s recommendations 28/10/’36 No access
20. Appendix 20: Kanoo employment Dec '36 No access
21. Appendix 21: Packer hears that opposition agents threaten 20/10/'36 No access
22. Appendix 22: Haji Williamson’s report 4/12/'36 No access
23. Appendix 23: HMG Principles and Instructions to PCL 25/10/'36 No access
24. Appendix 24: Williamson’s ‘I remember’ No access
25. Appendix 25: Williamson from Trek of the Oil Finders No access
26. Appendix 26: Williamson arrives in Abu Dhabi No access
27. Appendix 27: Geological report extract Dec '36 No access
28. Appendix 28: Williamson’s complaint to Packer 19/1/'37 No access
29. Appendix 29: Packer’s response to Williamson 23/1/'37 No access
30. Appendix 30: Geological summary, extract report 77 No access
31. Appendix 31: Geological report to HMG May '37 No access
32. Appendix 32: Longrigg on hinterland No access
33. Appendix 33: Geologists note of thanks 7/6/'37 No access
34. Appendix 34: Geologists note on tribal boundaries with map 3/6/'37 No access
35. Appendix 35: Letter Dubai Ruler to Holmes 18/2/'37 No access
36. Appendix 36: Haji Williamson reports on boundaries No access
37. Appendix 37: Packer to London re: Haji Williamson 1/4/'37 No access
38. Appendix 38: Brief notes on Trucial Oman, 1937 No access
39. Appendix 39a: Dubai Concession Agreement 22/5/'37 (first page) No access
40. Appendix 39b: Dubai Concession Agreement (last page) No access
41. Appendix 40: Hinkinbotham to Sheikh Saeed 22/5/'37 No access
42. Appendix 41: Holmes to Longrigg 26/6/'37 No access
43. Appendix 42: Longrigg re: Ra’s al-Khaimah 26/7/'37 No access
44. Appendix 43: Kanoo calls on Hinkinbotham 17/7/'37 No access
45. Appendix 44: Meeting on ship 3/12/'37 No access
46. Appendix 45: Lermitte to Longrigg 4/12/'37 No access
47. Appendix 46: Lermitte to Longrigg 3/2/’38 No access
48. Appendix 47: The trump card 2/12/'37 No access
49. Appendix 48: Lermitte to Longrigg 11/2/'38 No access
50. Appendix 49: Lermitte to Longrigg 15/2/'38 No access
51. Appendix 50: Lermitte to Longrigg 18/2/'38 No access
52. Appendix 51: Lermitte to Longrigg 2/3/'38 No access
53. Appendix 52: Lermitte to Longrigg 18/3/'38 No access
54. Appendix 53: Lermitte to Longrigg 10/5/'38 No access
55. Appendix 54: Chisholm on Haji Williamson No access
56. Appendix 55: Lermitte to Weightman 18/3/'38 No access
57. Appendix 56: Longrigg in Bahrain to Skliros in Baghdad 24/11/'38 No access
58. Appendix 57: Longrigg to London 6/12/'38 No access
59. Appendix 58: T. Williamson to Lermitte 22/11/'38 No access
60. Appendix 59: Thompson to Williamson 3/12/'38 No access
61. Appendix 60: Williamson to Lermitte 28/11/'38 No access
62. Appendix 61: Williamson to Longrigg 6/12/'38 No access
63. Appendix 62: Williamson to Longrigg 7/12/'38 No access
64. Appendix 63: Williamson to Longrigg 9/12/'38 No access
65. Appendix 64: Thompson’s progress report 10/12/'38 No access
66. Appendix 65: Longrigg to London 12/12/'38 No access
67. Appendix 66: Longrigg to London 26/12/'38 No access
68. Appendix 67: Longrigg to Skliros 3/1/’39 No access
69. Appendix 68: Longrigg to London 13/1/'39 No access
70. Appendix 69: The trump card 4/1/'39 No access
71. Appendix 70a: Abu Dhabi Concession 11/1/'39 (first page) No access
72. Appendix 70b: Abu Dhabi Concession (last page) No access
73. Appendix 71: Memo to the Groups 18/1/'39 No access
74. Appendix 72: HMG approves Concession Agreement 8/5/'40 No access
75. Appendix 73: Memo to the Groups 25/1/'39 No access
76. Appendix 74: Lermitte list of ‘presents’ 31/1/'39 No access
77. Appendix 75: Lermitte note on ‘events’ 28/3/'39 No access
78. Appendix 76: Lermitte minutes of meeting 27-30/4/'39 No access
79. Appendix 77: Lermitte to Longrigg 30/4/'39 No access
80. Appendix 78: Lermitte to Longrigg re: Sheikh Shakhbut’s demands 8/6/'39 No access
81. Appendix 79: Lermitte to Packer re: silver. 13/1/'43 No access
82. Appendix 80: Packer to Horsham 24/2/'43 No access
83. Appendix 81: PD(TC) to Sheikh Shakhbut No access
1. Companies No access
2. Personalities No access
3. Place names No access
4. Tribes No access
1. Fig. 1. Geologists’ camp at Rifaya, Ajman. No access
2. Fig. 2. Fort at Dhaid in 1937. No access
3. Fig. 3. Sheikh Saeed bin Maktoum (centre) and his son Rashid (left) photographed in 1936. No access
4. Fig. 4. Major Frank Holmes. No access
5. Fig. 5. Haji Williamson. No access
6. Fig. 6. Haji Yusuf bin Ahmad Kanoo. No access
7. Fig. 7. Haji Williamson's website. Below, Haji Williamson with two Europeans and an aircraft. No access
8. Fig. 8. Fresh warm water spring at Qat in Ra’s al-Khaimah. No access
9. Fig. 9. Some ‘good geology’ in the hills. Ra's al-Khaimah rocks. No access
10. Fig. 10. Loading car on dhow during the first geological reconnaissance of the Trucial States. No access
11. Fig. 11. Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed, Sheikh Shakhbut bin Sultan, Haji Abdulla Williamson. No access
12. Fig. 12. Ahmed bin Khalaf al Otaiba and family. No access
13. Fig. 13. Geologists’ cars on a dhow preparing to sail to Western Abu Dhabi. No access
14. Fig. 14. The dhow gathers wind. No access
15. Fig. 15. Geologists’ car bogged down in sabkhah. No access
16. Fig. 16. Geologists’ car stuck in sabkhah. No access
17. Fig. 17. Sh. Mohamed bin Khalifa, Sh. Khalifa bin Zayed, Br. Stephen Longrigg, Sh. Zayed bin Sultan. No access
18. Fig. 18. Brigadier Stephen Longrigg, IPC/PCL manager. No access
19. Fig. 19. Group at Khor al-Odeid. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan is fourth from left. No access
1. Williamson’s map of some of his investigations. 1937-38. No access
2. Cox’s visits to Trucial Coast, 1934 and 1935. Abu Dhabi excursions. No access