Cover of book: Forms and Performance of Foreign Direct Investments in Sub-Saharan Africa
Buy in shop
, to see if you have full access to this publication.
Book Titles No access

Forms and Performance of Foreign Direct Investments in Sub-Saharan Africa

Authors:
Publisher:
 2018

Summary

In der aktuellen Debatte zur Erreichung der Nachhaltigen Entwicklungsziele bis 2030 spielen ausländische Direktinvestitionen (ADI) in Sub-Sahara Afrika eine tragende Rolle. Lückenhafte und zumeist veraltete Zahlungsbilanzstatistiken von ADI bieten dabei allerdings nur einen vagen Bezugspunkt. Verlässliche Aussagen über verschiedene Formen, Geschäftsdynamiken und Entwicklungseffekte von ADI lassen sich allerdings anhand dieser Statistiken nicht treffen. Dieses Buch schließt diese Lücke.

Auf Basis eines Datensatzes von über 2.000 ausländischen Niederlassungen in Sub-Sahara-Afrika zeigt es auf, welche ADI bereits an der wirtschaftlichen Dynamik dieser Weltregion partizipieren und welche Strategien (Branche, Markteintritt, strategische Allianzen etc.) zu unternehmerischen Erfolg führen. Geschäftserfolg und Entwicklungsbeitrag müssen dabei nicht im Widerspruch zueinanderstehen, sondern können sich gegenseitig verstärken.

Bibliographic data

Copyright year
2018
ISBN-Print
978-3-8487-4948-5
ISBN-Online
978-3-8452-9160-4
Publisher
Nomos, Baden-Baden
Language
English
Pages
348
Product type
Book Titles

Table of contents

ChapterPages
  1. Titelei/Inhaltsverzeichnis No access 1 - 27
    1. 1.1 The foreign direct investment (FDI) scenario in Sub-Saharan Africa No access
    2. 1.2 Research objective No access
    3. 1.3 Structure of the Book No access
    1. 2.1 Definitions No access
    2. 2.2 The state of FDI statistics in SSA No access
      1. 2.3.1 SSA FDI statistics reported by the IMF No access
      2. 2.3.2 SSA FDI statistics reported by the World Bank No access
      3. 2.3.3 SSA FDI statistics reported by UNCTAD No access
      4. 2.3.4 SSA FDI statistics reported by OECD No access
      5. 2.3.5 Comparison between World Bank, IMF, UNCTAD and OECD No access
      6. 2.3.6 Factors influencing variations in FDI flow and stock statistics No access
      1. 2.4.1 Industry subsectors of FDI No access
      2. 2.4.2 FDI countries of origin No access
      3. 2.4.3 Entry mode of FDI No access
      4. 2.4.4 Size of FDI No access
    5. 2.5 Summary of findings and Chapter 2 conclusions No access
    1. 3.1 Available resources and foreign firm-level samples No access
    2. 3.2 Industry subsectors of FDI No access
    3. 3.3 FDI origin No access
    4. 3.4 FDI establishment and ownership mode No access
    5. 3.5 Perceived partner contributions to joint venture success No access
    6. 3.6 Size of FDI No access
    7. 3.7 Organizational structure of FDI No access
    8. 3.8 Age of FDI No access
    9. 3.9 Market orientation of FDI No access
    10. 3.10 Summary of findings and Chapter 3 conclusions No access
      1. 4.1.1 Definitional issues No access
      2. 4.1.2 FDI entry mode and performance No access
    2. 4.2 FDI Performance No access
    3. 4.3 Transaction cost determinants of FDI performance No access
    4. 4.4 Institutional and host country determinants of FDI performance No access
    5. 4.5 Industry and corporate determinants of FDI performance No access
    6. 4.6 Cultural and institutional distance determinants of FDI performance No access
    7. 4.7 Firm resource and internationalization determinants of FDI performance No access
    8. 4.8 Governance and subsidiary integration determinants of FDI performance No access
    1. 5.1 Data and sample No access
      1. 5.2.1 Dependent variables No access
      2. 5.2.2 Independent variables No access
        1. 5.2.3.1 Subsidiary age No access
        2. 5.2.3.2 Subsidiary size No access
        3. 5.2.3.3 Entry mode No access
        4. 5.2.3.4 Export orientation No access
        5. 5.2.3.5 Industry sector No access
        6. 5.2.3.6 Host country No access
      1. 5.3.1 Descriptive results No access
      2. 5.3.2 Principal component analysis of the location factor change matrix No access
      3. 5.3.3 Regression results No access
    4. 5.4 Summary of findings and Chapter 5 conclusions No access
    1. 6.1 Summary of findings and contributions No access
    2. 6.2 Limitations and outlook No access
  8. Annex Tables and Figures No access 289 - 308
  9. Bibliography No access 309 - 348

Bibliography (639)

  1. Adams, S. (2009). 'Foreign Direct investment, domestic investment, and economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa'. Journal of Policy Modeling, 31(6), 939–949. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2009.03.003
  2. African Courir (2010). Back to Africa: Diaspora Returnees Making a Difference in Their Country of Origin. August/September 2010 Issue, p. 26–31. Open Google Scholar
  3. AFDB (2010). Eastern Africa – Regional Integration Strategy Paper. October 2010, Tunis: African Development Bank. Open Google Scholar
  4. AFDB (2011a). China and Africa: An emerging partnership for development?. Edited by Schiere, S., Ndikumana, L. and Walkenhorst, P., Tunis: African Development Bank. Open Google Scholar
  5. AFDB (2011b). The Middle of the Pyramid: Dynamics of the Middle Class in Africa. Market Brief, 20 April 2011, Tunis: African Development Bank. Open Google Scholar
  6. AFDB (2014). Tracking Africa´s Progress in Figures. Tunis: African Development Bank. Open Google Scholar
  7. AFDB, OECD and UNDP (2014). African Economic Outlook 2014. Tunis, Paris and New York: African Development Bank, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and United Nations Development Programme. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1787/aeo-2014-en
  8. Agarwal, S. and Ramaswami, S. N. (1992). 'Choice of Foreign Market Entry Mode: Impact of Ownership, Location and Internalization Factors'. Journal of International Business Studies, 23(1), 1–27. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490257
  9. Agodo, O. (1978). 'The Determinants of U. S. Private Manufacturing Investments in Africa'. Journal of International Business Studies, 9(3), 95–107. Open Google Scholar
  10. Ahmed, A. D. and Islam, S. M. N. (2010). Financial Liberalization in Developing Countries: Issues, Time Series Analyses and Policy Implications. Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag. Open Google Scholar
  11. Ajakaiye, O. and Kaplinsky, R. (2009). 'China in Africa: A Relationship in Transition'. European Journal of Development Research, 21(4), 479–484. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2009.30
  12. Akinkugbe, O. (2005). 'A Two-part Econometric Analysis of Foreign Direct Investment Flows to Africa'. Journal of World Trade, 39(5), 907–923. Open Google Scholar
  13. Akyut, D. and Ratha, D. (2003). 'South-South FDI flows: How big are they?'. Transnational Corporations, 13(1), 149–176. Open Google Scholar
  14. Alfaro, L. and Chen, M. X. (2012). 'Surviving the Global Financial Crisis: Foreign Ownership and Establishment Performance'. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 4(3), 30–55. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-5946
  15. Amendolagine, V., Boly, A., Coniglio, N. D., Prota, F. and Seric, A. (2013). 'FDI and Local Linkages in Developing Countries: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa'. World Development, 50, 41–56. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.05.001
  16. Ampiah, K. (1997). The Dynamics of Japan's Relations with Africa – South Africa, Tanzania and Nigeria. London and New York: Routledge. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.4324/9780203440001
  17. Anand, J. and Delios, A. (1997). 'Location Specificity and the Transferability of Downstream Assets to Foreign Subsidiaries'. Journal of International Business Studies, 28(3), 579–603. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490112
  18. Anderson, E. and Gatignon, H. (1986). 'Modes of Foreign Entry: A Transaction Cost Analysis and Propositions'. Journal of International Business Studies, 17(3), 1–26. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490432
  19. Andersson, S., Evers, N. and Kuivalainen, O. (2014). 'International new ventures: Rapid internationalization across different industry contexts'. European Business Review, 26(5), 390–405. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1108/EBR-05-2014-0040
  20. Andersson, U., Forsgren, M. and Pedersen, T. (2001). 'Subsidiary performance in multinational corporations: the importance of technology embeddedness'. International Business Review, 10(1), 3–23. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0969-5931(00)00042-1
  21. Andras, T. L. and Srinivasan, S. S. (2003). 'Advertising Intensity and R&D Intensity: Differences across Industries and Their Impact on Firm’s Performance'. International Journal of Business and Economics, 2(2), 167–176. Open Google Scholar
  22. Anyanwu, J. C. (2006). 'Promoting of Investment in Africa'. African Development Review, 18(1), 42–71. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8268.2006.00132.x
  23. Arino, A. and de la Torre, J. (1998). 'Learning from Failure: Towards an Evolutionary Model of Collaborative Ventures'. Organization Science, 9(3), 306–325. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1287/orsc.9.3.306
  24. Arnold, J. M. and Javorcik, B. S. (2005). Gifted Kids or Pushy Parents? Foreign Acquisitions and Plant Performance in Indonesia. Policy Research Working Paper No. 3597, Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar
  25. Arora, A. and Fosfuri, A. (2000). 'Wholly Owned Subsidiary Versus Technology Licensing in the Worldwide Chemical Industry'. Journal of International Business Studies, 31(4), 555–572. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490922
  26. Aryeetey, C., Barthel, F., Busse, M., Loehr, C. and Osei, R. (2008). Empirical Study on the Determinants and Pro-Development Impacts of Foreign Direct Investment in Ghana. Hamburgisches WeltWirtschaftsInstitut (HWWI) and Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research (ISSER) of the University of Ghana. Open Google Scholar
  27. Asche, H. and Fritzen, A.-L. (2013). Perspectives of Employment and Manufacturing Industry in resource-rich African Countries. Eschborn: Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). Open Google Scholar
  28. Asche, H., Neuerburg, P. and Menegatti, M. (2012). Economic diversification strategies: A key driver in Africa’s new industrial revolution. Working Paper 2/2012, Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Open Google Scholar
  29. Asiedu, E. (2002). 'On the Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment to Developing Countries: Is Africa Different?'. World Development, 30(1), 107–119. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00100-0
  30. Asiedu, E. (2004a). 'The Determinants of Employment of Affiliates of US Multinational Enterprises in Africa'. Development Policy Review, 22(4), 371–379. Open Google Scholar
  31. Asiedu, E. (2004b). 'Policy Reform and Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: Absolute Progress but Relative Decline'. Development Policy Review, 22(1), 41–48. Open Google Scholar
  32. Asiedu, E. (2006). 'Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: The Role of Natural Resources, Market Size, Government Policy, Institutions and Political Instability'. World Economy, 29(1), 63–77. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9701.2006.00758.x
  33. Aulakh, P. S. and Kotabe, M. (1997). 'Antecedents and Performance Implications of Channel Integration in Foreign Markets'. Journal of International Business Studies, 28(1), 145–175. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490096
  34. Autio, E., Sapienza, H. J. and Almeida, J. G. (2000). 'Effects of Age at Entry, Knowledge Intensity, and Imitability on International Growth'. The Academy of Management Journal, 43(5), 909–924. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/1556419
  35. Aykut, D. and Goldstein, A. (2006). Developing Country Multinationals: South-South Investment Comes of Age. Working Paper No. 257, Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1787/245230176440
  36. Bain, J. (1956). Barriers to New Competition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674188037
  37. Baldwin, J. R. and Caves, R. E. (1991). 'Foreign multinational enterprises and merger activity in Canada'. In: Waverman, L. (Ed.), Corporate Globalization through Mergers and Acquisitions. Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 89–122. Open Google Scholar
  38. Bame, J. (1995). The Measurement of Reinvested Earnings in the Balance of Payments. Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  39. Barbosa, N. and Louri, H. (2002). 'On the determinants of multinationals' ownership preferences: evidence from Greece and Portugal'. International Journal of Industrial Organization, 20(4), 493–515. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0167-7187(00)00102-8
  40. Barkema, H. G., Bell, J. H. J. and Pennings, J. M. (1996). 'Foreign Entry, Cultural Barriers, and Learning'. Strategic Management Journal, 17(2), 151–166. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199602)17:2<151::AID-SMJ799>3.0.CO;2-Z
  41. Barkema, H. G., Shenkar, O., Vermeulen, F. and Bell, J. H. J. (1997). 'Working Abroad, Working with Others: How Firms Learn to Operate International Joint Ventures'. The Academy of Management Journal, 40(2), 426–442. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/256889
  42. Barkema, H. G. and Vermeulen, F. (1997). 'What Differences in the Cultural Backgrounds of Partners are Detrimental fo International Joint Ventures?'. Journal of International Business Studies, 28(4), 845–864. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490122
  43. Barkema, H. G. and Vermeulen, F. (1998). 'International Expansion through Start up or Acquisition: A Learning Perspective'. The Academy of Management Journal, 41(1), 7–26. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/256894
  44. Barney, J. (1991). 'Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage'. Journal of Management, 17(1), 99–120. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1177/014920639101700108
  45. Bartels, F. L., Alladina, S. N. and Lederer, S. (2009). 'Foreign Direct Investment in Sub-Saharan Africa: Motivating Factors and Policy Issues'. Journal of African Business, 10(2), 141–162. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1080/15228910903187791
  46. Bartels, F. L., Johnson, J. P. and Ahmed, Z. U. (2002). 'International Equity Joint Ventures in Ghana and Côte D'Ivoire: The Experience of British and French Firms'. Journal of African Business, 3(3), 5–30. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1300/J156v03n03_02
  47. Bartels, F. L., Kratzsch, S. and Eicher, M. (2008). Foreign Direct Investment in Sub-Saharan Africa: Determinants and Location Decisions. Working Paper 8/2008, Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Open Google Scholar
  48. Basdevant, O., Jonelis, A., Mircheva, B. and Slavov, S. (2014). The Mystery of Missing Real Spillovers in Southern Africa – Some Facts and Possible Explanations. Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  49. Baum, J. A. C. and Korn, H. J. (1996). 'Competitive Dynamics of Interfirm Rivalry'. The Academy of Management Journal, 39(2), 255–291. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/256781
  50. Beamish, P. W. and Inkpen, A. C. (1995). 'Keeping international joint ventures stable and profitable'. Long Range Planning, 28(3), 26–36. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/0024-6301(95)00018-E
  51. Beamish, P. W. and Lee, C. (2003). 'The Characteristics and Performance of Affiliates of Small and Medium-Size Multinational Enterprises in an Emerging Market'. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 1(1), 121–134. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1023/A:1023223424789
  52. Beavers, A. S., Lounsbury, J. W., Richards, J. K., Huck, S. W., Skolits, G. J. and Esquivel, S. L. (2013). 'Practical Considerations for Using Exploratory Factor Analysis in Educational Research '. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 18(6), 1–13. Open Google Scholar
  53. Belderbos, R., Capannelli, G. and Fukao, K. (2001). 'Backward Vertical Linkages of Foreign Manufacturing Affiliates: Evidence from Japanese Multinationals'. World Development, 29(1), 189–208. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00086-3
  54. Bellak, C. (1998). 'The measurement of foreign direct investment: A critical review'. International Trade Journal, 12(2), 227–257. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1080/08853909808523905
  55. Bellak, C. and Cantwell, J. (2004). 'Revaluing the capital stock of international production'. International Business Review, 13(1), 1–18. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2003.07.003
  56. Bénassy-Quéré, A., Coupet, M. and Mayer, T. (2007). 'Institutional Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment'. World Economy, 30(5), 764–782. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9701.2007.01022.x
  57. Bende-Nabende, A. (2002). 'Foreign direct investment determinants in sub-Sahara Africa: A co-integration analysis'. Economics Bulletin, 6(4), 1−19. Open Google Scholar
  58. Bernard, A. B. and Bradford Jensen, J. (1999). 'Exceptional exporter performance: cause, effect, or both?'. Journal of International Economics, 47(1), 1–25. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1996(98)00027-0
  59. Besada, H., Wang, Y. and Whalley, J. (2008). China's Growing Economic Activity in Africa. NBER Working Paper No. 14024, Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.3386/w14024
  60. Bettis, R. A. (1981). 'Performance Differences in Related and Unrelated Diversified Firms'. Strategic Management Journal, 2(4), 379–393. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250020406
  61. Beugelsdijk, S., Hennart, J.-F., Slangen, A. and Smeets, R. (2010). 'Why and how FDI stocks are a biased measure of MNE affiliate activity'. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(9), 1444–1459. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2010.29
  62. Bevan, A. A. and Estrin, S. (2000). The determinants of Foreign Direct Investment in Transition Economies. Working Paper No. 342, William Davidson Institute. Open Google Scholar
  63. Bewayo, E. (2009). 'Family Business In Africa: A Comparison with the U.S.-Western Model'. Journal of Global Business Issues, 3(1), 171–181. Open Google Scholar
  64. Bhaumik, S. K. and Gelb, S. (2005). 'Determinants of Entry Mode Choice of MNCs in Emerging Markets – Evidence from South Africa and Egypt'. Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, 41(2), 5–24. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1080/1540496X.2005.11052603
  65. Biggs, T. and Shah, M. K. (2006). African Small and Medium Enterprises, Networks, and Manufacturing Performance. Policy Research Working Paper No. 3855, Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-3855
  66. Bigsten, A., Collier, P., Dercon, S., Fafchamps, M., Gauthier, B., Gunning, J. W., Oduro, A., Oostendorp, R., Pattillo, C., Söderbom, M., Teal, F. and Zeufack, A. (2004). 'Do African Manufacturing Firms Learn from Exporting?'. Journal of Development Studies, 40(3), 115–141. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1080/0022038042000213229
  67. Bigsten, A. and Söderbom, M. (2006). 'What Have We Learned from a Decade of Manufacturing Enterprise Surveys in Africa?'. The World Bank Research Observer, 21(2), 241–265. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkl003
  68. Birkinshaw, J. (1998). 'Corporate entrepreneurship in network organizations: How subsidiary initiative drives internal market efficiency'. European Management Journal, 16(3), 355–364. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0263-2373(98)00012-7
  69. Birkinshaw, J. (2000). Entrepreneurship in the global firm. London: Sage Publications. Open Google Scholar
  70. Birkinshaw, J., Hood, N. and Young, S. (2005). 'Subsidiary entrepreneurship, internal and external competitive forces, and subsidiary performance'. International Business Review, 14(2), 227–248. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2004.04.010
  71. Birkinshaw, J. and Morrison, A. J. (1995). 'Configurations of Strategy and Structure in Subsidiaries of Multinational Corporations'. Journal of International Business Studies, 26(4), 729–753. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490818
  72. Blalock, G. and Gertler, P. J. (2008). 'Welfare gains from Foreign Direct Investment through technology transfer to local suppliers'. Journal of International Economics, 74(2), 402–421. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.jinteco.2007.05.011
  73. Blalock, G. and Simon, D. (2009). 'Do all firms benefit equally from downstream FDI? The moderating effect of local suppliers' capabilities on productivity gains'. Journal of International Business Studies, 40(7), 1095–1112. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2009.21
  74. Boateng, A. and Glaister, K. (2002). 'Performance of international joint ventures: evidence for West Africa'. International Business Review, 11, 523–541. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0969-5931(02)00035-5
  75. Boddewyn, J. J. (1983). 'Foreign Direct Divestment Theory: Is It the Reverse of FDI Theory?'. Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 119(2), 345–355. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/BF02706431
  76. Boly, A., Coniglio, N. D., Prota, F. and Seric, A. (2014). 'Diaspora Investments and Firm Export Performance in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries'. World Development, 59, 422–433. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.02.006
  77. Borensztein, E., De Gregorio, J. and Lee, J. W. (1998). 'How does foreign direct investment affect economic growth?'. Journal of International Economics, 45(1), 115–135. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1996(97)00033-0
  78. Bowen, H. P. and Wiersema, M. F. (1999). 'Matching method to paradigm in strategy research: limitations of cross-sectional analysis and some methodological alternatives'. Strategic Management Journal, 20(7), 625–636. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199907)20:7<625::AID-SMJ45>3.0.CO;2-V
  79. Bräutigam, D. (2009). The Dragon´s Gift: The Real Story of China in Africa. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Open Google Scholar
  80. Bräutigam, D. (2010). Africa’s Eastern promise: What the West can learn from Chinese investment in Africa. Foreign Affairs, Online at: http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/africa/2010-01-05/africa-s-eastern-promise (accessed on 6 July 2016). Open Google Scholar
  81. Bräutigam, D. and Xiaoyang, T. (2009). 'China's Engagement in African Agriculture: "Down to the Countryside"'. The China Quarterly, 199, 686–706. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1017/S0305741009990166
  82. Bräutigam, D. and Xiaoyang, T. (2011). 'African Shenzhen: China's special economic zones in Africa'. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 49(1), 27–54. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X10000649
  83. Brenton, P. (2003). 'Integrating the Least Developed Countries into the World Trading System – The Current Impact of EU Preferences under "Everything but Arms"'. Journal of World Trade, 37(3), 623–646. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-3018
  84. Breslin, T. P. and Samanta, S. K. (2008). 'Investment Flows, Economic Growth, and Corruption in African Countries: An Analysis'. Journal of African Business, 9(2), 287–307. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1080/15228910802480032
  85. Broadman, H. G. (2007). Africa´s New Silk Road: China and India’s New Economic Frontier. Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar
  86. Broadman, H. G. (2008). 'China and India go to Africa'. Foreign Affairs, 87(2), 95–109. Open Google Scholar
  87. Broadman, H. G. (2009). '"First Mover" Investment Advantages in Sub-Saharan Africa: Why Northern Multinationals Should React (Quickly) to Their Southern Counterparts'. CESifo Forum, 10(4), 52–58. Open Google Scholar
  88. Brouthers, K. D. (2002). 'Institutional, cultural and transaction cost influences on entry mode choice and performance'. Journal of International Business Studies, 33(2), 203–221. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8491013
  89. Brouthers, K. D. and Bamossy, G. J. (2006). 'Post-Formation Processes in Eastern and Western European Joint Ventures'. Journal of Management Studies, 43(2), 203–229. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2006.00588.x
  90. Brouthers, K. D. and Brouthers, L. E. (2000). 'Acquisition or Greenfield Start-up? Institutional, Cultural and Transaction Cost Influences'. Strategic Management Journal, 21(1), 89–97. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(200001)21:1<89::AID-SMJ85>3.0.CO;2-8
  91. Brouthers, K. D. and Brouthers, L. E. (2001). 'Explaining the National Cultural Distance Paradox'. Journal of International Business Studies, 32(1), 177–189. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490944
  92. Brouthers, K. D. and Brouthers, L. E. (2003). 'Why Service and Manufacturing Entry Mode Choices Differ: The Influence of Transaction Cost Factors, Risk and Trust'. Journal of Management Studies, 40(5), 1179–1204. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/1467-6486.00376
  93. Brouthers, K. D., Brouthers, L. E. and Werner, S. (2003). 'Transaction Cost-Enhanced Entry Mode Choices and Firm Performance'. Strategic Management Journal, 24(12), 1239–1248. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.362
  94. Brouthers, K. D., Brouthers, L. E. and Werner, S. (2008a). 'Real Options, International Entry Mode Choice and Performance'. Journal of Management Studies, 45(5), 936–960. Open Google Scholar
  95. Brouthers, K. D., Brouthers, L. E. and Werner, S. (2008b). 'Resource-Based Advantages in an International Context'. Journal of Management, 34(2), 189–217. Open Google Scholar
  96. Brouthers, K. D. and Hennart, J.-F. (2007). 'Boundaries of the Firm: Insights From International Entry Mode Research'. Journal of Management, 33(3), 395–425. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1177/0149206307300817
  97. Brouthers, K. D. and Nakos, G. (2004). 'SME Entry Mode Choice and Performance: A Transaction Cost Perspective'. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 28(3), 229–247. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2004.00041.x
  98. Brouthers, K. D., Nakos, G. and Dimitratos, P. (2015). 'SME Entrepreneurial Orientation, International Performance, and the Moderating Role of Strategic Alliances'. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 39(5), 1161–1187. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/etap.12101
  99. Brouthers, L. E., Brouthers, K. D. and Werner, S. (1999). 'Is Dunning's Eclectic Framework Descriptive or Normative?'. Journal of International Business Studies, 30(4), 831–844. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490842
  100. Brouthers, L. E., Brouthers, K. D. and Werner, S. (2000). 'Perceived Environmental Uncertainty, Entry Mode Choice and Satisfaction with EC-MNC Performance'. British Journal of Management, 11(3), 183–195. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.00160
  101. Buckley, A. and Tse, K. (1996). 'Real operating options and foreign direct investment: A synthetic approach'. European Management Journal, 14(3), 304–314. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/0263-2373(96)00010-2
  102. Buckley, P. J. (2007). 'The strategy of multinational enterprises in the light of the rise of China'. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 23(2), 107–126. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.scaman.2007.02.007
  103. Buckley, P. J. (2014). The Multinational Enterprise and the Emergence of the Global Factory. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Open Google Scholar
  104. Buckley, P. J. and Casson, M. (1976). The Future of the Multinational Enterprise. London: Macmillan Press. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-02899-3
  105. Buckley, P. J. and Casson, M. (1985). The Economic Theory of The Multinational Enterprise. London: Macmillan Press. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-05242-4
  106. Buckley, P. J. and Casson, M. (1998). 'Analyzing Foreign Market Entry Strategies: Extending the Internalization Approach'. Journal of International Business Studies, 29(3), 539–561. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490006
  107. Buckley, P. J., Sutherland, D., Voss, H. and El-Gohari, A. (2015). 'The economic geography of offshore incorporation in tax havens and offshore financial centres: the case of Chinese MNEs'. Journal of Economic Geography, 15(1), 103–128. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbt040
  108. Buencamino, L. and Gorbunov, S. (2002). Informal Money Transfer Systems – Opportunities and Challenges for Development Finance. Discussion Paper No. 26, New York: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Open Google Scholar
  109. Burgel, O. and Murray, G. C. (2000). 'The International Market Entry Choices of Start-Up Companies in High-Technology Industries'. Journal of International Marketing, 8(2), 33–62. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1509/jimk.8.2.33.19624
  110. Busse, M. and Groizard, J. L. (2008). 'Foreign Direct Investment, Regulations and Growth'. World Economy, 31(7), 861–886. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9701.2008.01106.x
  111. Busse, M., Königer, J. and Nunnenkamp, P. (2008). FDI Promotion through Bilateral Investment Treaties: More Than a Bit? Working Paper 1403, Kiel: Kiel Institute for the World Economy. Open Google Scholar
  112. Büthe, T. and Milner, H. V. (2008). 'The Politics of Foreign Direct Investment into Developing Countries: Increasing FDI through International Trade Agreements?'. American Journal of Political Science, 52(4), 741–762. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2008.00340.x
  113. Canabal, A. and White III, G. O. (2008). 'Entry mode research: Past and future'. International Business Review, 17(3), 267–284. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2008.01.003
  114. Cantwell, J. (1992). 'The methodological problems raised by the collection of foreign direct investment data'. Scandinavian International Business Review, 1(1), 86–102. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/0962-9262(92)90038-8
  115. Capon, N., Hulbert, J. M., Farley, J. U. and Martin, L. E. (1988). 'Corporate Diversity and Economic Performance: The Impact of Market Specialization'. Strategic Management Journal, 9(1), 61–74. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250090106
  116. Cattell, R. B. (1966). 'The Scree Test For The Number Of Factors'. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 1(2), 245–276. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr0102_10
  117. Caves, R. E. (1971). 'International Corporations: The Industrial Economics of Foreign Investment'. Economica, 38(149), 1–27. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/2551748
  118. Caves, R. E. (1974). 'Industrial Organisation'. In: Dunning, J. (Ed.), Economic Analysis and the Multinational Enterprise, London: George Allen & Unwin, 115–146. Open Google Scholar
  119. Caves, R. E. and Mehra, S. K. (1986). 'Entry of foreign multinational into U.S. manufacturing industries'. In: Porter, M. E. (Ed.), Competition in Global Industries, Boston: Harvard Business School Press. 449–481. Open Google Scholar
  120. Chacko, E. and Gebre, P. H. (2013). 'Leveraging the diaspora for development: Lessons from Ethiopia'. GeoJournal, 78(3), 495–505. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/s10708-012-9447-9
  121. Chakrabarti, A., Singh, K. and Mahmood, I. (2007). 'Diversification and performance: evidence from East Asian firms'. Strategic Management Journal, 28(2), 101–120. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.572
  122. Chan, C. M., Isobe, T. and Makino, S. (2008). 'Which country matters? Institutional development and foreign affiliate performance'. Strategic Management Journal, 29(11), 1179–1205. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.705
  123. Chan, C. M. and Makino, S. (2007). 'Legitimacy and Multi-Level Institutional Environments: Implications for Foreign Subsidiary Ownership Structure'. Journal of International Business Studies, 38(4), 621–638. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400283
  124. Chang, S.-J. (1995). 'International Expansion Strategy of Japanese Firms: Capability Building through Sequential Entry'. The Academy of Management Journal, 38(2), 383–407. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/256685
  125. Chang, S.-J., Chung, J. and Moon, J. J. (2013). 'When do wholly owned subsidiaries perform better than joint ventures?'. Strategic Management Journal, 34(3), 317–337. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.2016
  126. Chang, S.-J. and Rosenzweig, P. M. (2001). 'The Choice of Entry Mode in Sequential Foreign Direct Investment'. Strategic Management Journal, 22(8), 747–776. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.168
  127. Chatterjee, S. and Wernerfelt, B. (1991). 'The Link between Resources and Type of Diversification: Theory and Evidence'. Strategic Management Journal, 12(1), 33–48. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250120104
  128. Chen, H. and Hu, M. Y. (2002). 'An analysis of determinants of entry mode and its impact on performance'. International Business Review, 11(2), 193–210. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0969-5931(01)00055-5
  129. Chi, T. (2000). 'Option to Acquire or Divest a Joint Venture'. Strategic Management Journal, 21(6), 665–687. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(200006)21:6<665::AID-SMJ109>3.0.CO;2-0
  130. Chiao, Y. C., Lo, F. Y. and Yu, C. M. (2010). 'Choosing between wholly-owned subsidiaries and joint ventures of MNCs from an emerging market'. International Marketing Review, 27(3), 338–365. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1108/02651331011047998
  131. Cho, K. R. and Padmanabhan, P. (2005). 'Revisiting the role of cultural distance in MNC's foreign ownership mode choice: the moderating effect of experience attributes'. International Business Review, 14(3), 307–324. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2005.01.001
  132. Chowdhury, J. (1992). 'Performance of international joint ventures and wholly owned foreign subsidiaries: A comparative perspective'. Management International Review, 32(2), 115–133. Open Google Scholar
  133. Christmann, P., Day, D. and Yip, G. S. (1999). 'The relative influence of country conditions, industry structure, and business strategy on multinational corporation subsidiary performance'. Journal of International Management, 5(4), 241–265. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S1075-4253(99)00015-0
  134. Chung, C. C. and Beamish, P. W. (2005a). 'The Impact of Institutional Reforms on Characteristics and Survival of Foreign Subsidiaries in Emerging Economies'. Journal of Management Studies, 42(1), 35–62. Open Google Scholar
  135. Chung, C. C. and Beamish, P. W. (2005b). 'Investment mode strategy and expatriate strategy during times of economic crisis'. Journal of International Management, 11(3), 331–355. Open Google Scholar
  136. Chung, C. C. and Beamish, P. W. (2010). 'The Trap of Continual Ownership Change in International Equity Joint Ventures'. Organization Science, 21(5), 995–1015. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1090.0489
  137. Clarke, N. (2014). Go out and manufacture: Policy support for Chinese FDI in Africa. Columbia FDI Perspectives No. 107, New York: Vale Columbia Center on Sustainable International Investment. Open Google Scholar
  138. Clerides, S. K., Lach, S. and Tybout, J. R. (1998). 'Is Learning by Exporting Important? Micro-Dynamic Evidence from Colombia, Mexico, and Morocco'. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 113(3), 903–947. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1162/003355398555784
  139. Combs, J. G. and Ketchen, D. J. (1999). 'Explaining interfirm cooperation and performance: toward a reconciliation of predictions from the resource-based view and organizational economics'. Strategic Management Journal, 20(9), 867–888. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199909)20:9<867::AID-SMJ55>3.0.CO;2-6
  140. Contractor, F. J. (1990). 'Ownership Patterns of U.S. Joint Ventures Abroad and the Liberalization of Foreign Government Regulations in the 1980s: Evidence from the Benchmark Surveys'. Journal of International Business Studies, 21(1), 55–73. Open Google Scholar
  141. Contractor, F. J. and Lorange, P. (1988). 'Competition vs. Cooperation: A Benefit/Cost Framework for Choosing Between Fully-Owned Investments and Cooperative Relationships'. Management International Review, 28(4), 5–18. Open Google Scholar
  142. Corkin, L. (2007). 'The Strategic Entry of China's Emerging Multinationals into Africa'. China Report, 43(3), 309–322. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1177/000944550704300303
  143. Corkin, L. (2012). 'Chinese construction companies in Angola: A local linkages perspective'. Resources Policy, 37(4), 475–483. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.06.002
  144. Cotton, L. and Ramachandran, V. (2001). Foreign Direct Investment in Emerging Economies – Lessons from sub-Saharan Africa. UNU-WIDER Discussion Paper No. 2001/82, Helsinki: United Nations University and World Institute for Development Economics Research. Open Google Scholar
  145. Cotula, L. and Vermeulen, S. (2009). 'Deal or no deal: the outlook for agricultural land investment in Africa'. International Affairs, 85(6), 1233–1247. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2009.00859.x
  146. Cotula, L., Vermeulen, S., Leonard, R. and Keeley, J. (2009). Land Grab or Development Opportunity? Agricultural Investment and International Land Deals in Africa. London/Rome: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). Open Google Scholar
  147. Coviello, N. E. and McAuley, A. (1999). 'Internationalisation and the smaller firm: A review of contemporary empirical research'. Management International Review, 39(3), 223–256. Open Google Scholar
  148. Coviello, N. E. and Munro, H. (1997). 'Network relationships and the internationalisation process of small software firms'. International Business Review, 6(4), 361–386. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0969-5931(97)00010-3
  149. Coviello, N. E. (2006). 'The Network Dynamics of International New Ventures'. Journal of International Business Studies, 37(5), 713–731. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400219
  150. Crick, D. and Jones, M. V. (2000). 'Small High-Technology Firms and International High-Technology Markets'. Journal of International Marketing, 8(2), 63–85. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1509/jimk.8.2.63.19623
  151. Cuervo-Cazurra, A. and Genc, M. (2008). 'Transforming Disadvantages into Advantages: Developing-Country MNEs in the Least Developed Countries'. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(6), 957–979. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400390
  152. Cui, L. and Jiang, F. (2009). 'FDI entry mode choice of Chinese firms: A strategic behavior perspective'. Journal of World Business, 44(4), 434–444. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2008.11.004
  153. Dabla-Norris, E., Honda, J., Lahreche, A. and Verdier, G. (2010). FDI Flows to Low-Income Countries: Global Drivers and Growth Implications. IMF Working Paper 10/132, Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  154. Das, K. C. and Banik, N. (2015). 'What motivates Indian firms to invest abroad?'. International Journal of Commerce and Management, 25(3), 330–355. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1108/IJCoMA-12-2013-0132
  155. Davis, L. E. and North, D. C. (1971). Institutional Change and American Economic Growth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511561078
  156. Davis, L. N. and Meyer, K. E. (2004). 'Subsidiary research and development, and the local environment'. International Business Review, 13(3), 359–382. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2003.06.003
  157. Davis, P. S., Desai, A. B. and Francis, J. D. (2000). 'Mode of international entry: An isomorphism perspective'. Journal of International Business Studies, 31(2), 239–258. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490904
  158. De Carolis, D. M. (2003). 'Competencies and Imitability in the Pharmaceutical Industry: An Analysis of Their Relationship with Firm Performance'. Journal of Management, 29(1), 27–50. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1177/014920630302900103
  159. De la Fontaine, D. and Seifert, J. (2009). New Dynamics in the South-South Cooperation between Brazil and Africa. Paper presented at the European Conference of African Studies (ECAS), Leipzig, 4–7 June 2009. Open Google Scholar
  160. De la Medina Soto, C. and Ghossein, T. (2013). Starting a Foreign Investment across Sectors. Policy Research Working Paper No. 6707, Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-6707
  161. De Nederlandsche Bank (2004). FDI – Other Capital. Issue Paper No. 22 prepared for the Direct Investment Technical Expert Group (DITEG), IMF Committee on Balance of Payments Statistics and OECD Workshop on International Investment Statistics. Open Google Scholar
  162. Delios, A. and Beamish, P. W. (1999a). 'Geographic scope, product diversification, and the corporate performance of Japanese firms'. Strategic Management Journal, 20(8), 711–727. Open Google Scholar
  163. Delios, A. and Beamish, P. W. (1999b). 'Ownership Strategy of Japanese Firms: Transactional, Institutional, and Experience Influences'. Strategic Management Journal, 20(10), 915–933. Open Google Scholar
  164. Delios, A. and Beamish, P. W. (2001). 'Survival and Profitability: The Roles of Experience and Intangible Assets in Foreign Subsidiary Performance'. The Academy of Management Journal, 44(5), 1028–1038. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/3069446
  165. Delios, A. and Beamish, P. W. (2004). 'Joint Venture Performance Revisited: Japanese Foreign Subsidiaries Worldwide'. Management International Review, 44(1), 69–91. Open Google Scholar
  166. Delios, A. and Henisz, W. J. (2000). 'Japanese Firms' Investment Strategies in Emerging Economies'. The Academy of Management Journal, 43(3), 305–323. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/1556397
  167. Demirbag, M., Glaister, K. W. and Tatoglu, E. (2007). 'Institutional and transaction cost influences on MNEs’ ownership strategies of their affiliates: Evidence from an emerging market'. Journal of World Business, 42(4), 418–434. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2007.06.004
  168. Desbordes, R., Darby, J. and Wooton, I. (2011) Institutional Quality and FDI to the South – An Analytical Approach. Strathclyde Discussion Paper in Economics 11–31, Glasgow: University of Strathclyde. Open Google Scholar
  169. Dhanaraj, C. and Beamish, P. W. (2009). 'Institutional Environment and Subsidiary Survival'. Management International Review, 49(3), 291–312. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/s11575-009-0144-y
  170. Dhawan, R. (2001). 'Firm size and productivity differential: theory and evidence from a panel of US firms'. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 44(3), 269–293. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0167-2681(00)00139-6
  171. Dierickx, I. and Cool, K. (1989). 'Asset Stock Accumulation and Sustainability of Competitive Advantage'. Management Science, 35(12), 1504–1511. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.35.12.1504
  172. Dikova, D. and van Witteloostuijn, A. (2007). 'Foreign direct investment mode choice: entry and establishment modes in transition economies'. Journal of International Business Studies, 38(6), 1013–1033. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400297
  173. DiStefano, C., Zhu, M. and Mindrila, D. (2009). 'Understanding and Using Factor Scores: Considerations for the Applied Researcher'. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 14(20), 1–11. Open Google Scholar
  174. Djankov, S. (2009). 'The Regulation of Entry: A Survey'. The World Bank Research Observer, 24(2), 183–203. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkp005
  175. Djankov, S., La Porta, R., Lopez-de-Silanes, F. and Shleifer, A. (2002). 'The Regulation of Entry'. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 117(1), 1–37. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1162/003355302753399436
  176. Djiofack-Zebaze, C. and Keck, A. (2009). 'Telecommunications Services in Africa: The Impact of WTO Commitments and Unilateral Reform on Sector Performance and Economic Growth'. World Development, 37(5), 919–940. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2008.09.007
  177. Dobler, G. (2009). 'Chinese Shops and the Formation of a Chinese Expatriate Community in Namibia'. The China Quarterly, 199, 707–727. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1017/S0305741009990178
  178. Dong, L. and Glaister, K. W. (2006). 'Motives and partner selection criteria in international strategic alliances: Perspectives of Chinese firms'. International Business Review, 15(6), 577–600. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2006.09.003
  179. Dow, D. and Karunaratna, A. (2006). 'Developing a Multidimensional Instrument to Measure Psychic Distance Stimuli'. Journal of International Business Studies, 37(5), 578–602. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400221
  180. Draper, P., Kiratu, S. and Samuel, C. (2010). The Role of South African FDI in Southern Africa. Discussion Paper 8/2010, Bonn: Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik. Open Google Scholar
  181. Dunning, J. H. (1993). Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy. Wokingham: Addison Wesley. Open Google Scholar
  182. Dunning, J. H. (1998). 'Location and the Multinational Enterprise: A Neglected Factor?'. Journal of International Business Studies, 29(1), 45–66. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490024
  183. Dunning, J. H. (2000). 'The eclectic paradigm as an envelope for economic and business theories of MNE activity'. International Business Review, 9(2), 163–190. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0969-5931(99)00035-9
  184. Dunning, J. H. (2006). 'Towards a new paradigm of development: implications for the determinants of international business'. Transnational Corporations, 15(1), 173–227. Open Google Scholar
  185. Dunning, J. H. and Lundan, S. M. (2008a). 'Institutions and the OLI paradigm of the multinational enterprise'. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 25(4), 573–593. Open Google Scholar
  186. Dunning, J. H. and Lundan, S. M. (2008b). Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy. 2nd Edition. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Open Google Scholar
  187. Dunning, J. H. and Lundan, S. M. (2009). 'The Internationalization of Corporate R&D: A Review of the Evidence and Some Policy Implications for Home Countries'. Review of Policy Research, 26(1–2), 13–33. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-1338.2008.00367.x
  188. Dupasquier, C. and Osakwe, P. N. (2006). 'Foreign direct investment in Africa: Performance, challenges, and responsibilities'. Journal of Asian Economics, 17(2), 241–260. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.asieco.2005.07.002
  189. Dyer, J. H. (1996). 'Specialized Supplier Networks as a Source of Competitive Advantage: Evidence from the Auto Industry'. Strategic Management Journal, 17(4), 271–291. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199604)17:4<271::AID-SMJ807>3.0.CO;2-Y
  190. EAC (2013). EAC Investment Guidebook. Arusha: East African Community Secretariat. Open Google Scholar
  191. Egger, P. and Pfaffermayr, M. (2004). 'The impact of bilateral investment treaties on foreign direct investment'. Journal of Comparative Economics, 32(4), 788–804. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2004.07.001
  192. Egger, P. and Winner, H. (2005). 'Evidence on corruption as an incentive for foreign direct investment'. European Journal of Political Economy, 21(4), 932–952. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2005.01.002
  193. Elango, B. and Pattnaik, C. (2007). 'Building capabilities for international operations through networks: a study of Indian firms'. Journal of International Business Studies, 38(4), 541–555. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400280
  194. Elango, B. and Sambharya, R. B. (2004). 'The influence of industry structure on the entry mode choice of overseas entrants in manufacturing industries'. Journal of International Management, 10(1), 107–124. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.intman.2003.12.005
  195. Ellis, P. D. (2007). 'Distance, Dependence and Diversity of Markets: Effects on Market Orientation'. Journal of International Business Studies, 38(3), 374–386. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400270
  196. Ernest and Young (2015). EY´s Attractiveness Survey Africa 2015 – Making Choices. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2098
  197. Erramilli, M. K. (1996). 'Nationality and subsidiary ownership patterns in multinational corporations'. Journal of International Business Studies, 27(2), 225–248. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490133
  198. Erramilli, M. K. and Rao, C. P. (1990). 'Choice of Foreign Market Entry Modes by Service Firms: Role of Market Knowledge'. Management International Review, 30(2), 135–150. Open Google Scholar
  199. Erramilli, M. K. and Rao, C. P. (1993). 'Service firms' international entry-mode choice: A modified transaction-cost analysis approach'. Journal of Marketing, 57(3), 19–38. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/1251852
  200. Estrin, S., Baghdasaryan, D. and Meyer, K. E. (2009). 'The Impact of Institutional and Human Resource Distance on International Entry Strategies'. Journal of Management Studies, 46(7), 1171–1196. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2009.00838.x
  201. Everitt, B. S. (2002). The Cambridge Dictionary of Statistics. 2nd Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Open Google Scholar
  202. Evers, N. (2011). 'International new ventures in “low tech” sectors: a dynamic capabilities perspective'. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 18(3), 502–528. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1108/14626001111155682
  203. Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., MacCallum, R. C. and Strahan, E. J. (1999). 'Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research'. Psychological Methods, 4(3), 272–299. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.4.3.272
  204. Farole, T. (2011). Special Economic Zones in Africa – Comparing Performance and Learning from Global Experience. Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-8638-5
  205. Farole, T. and Winkler, D. (2014). Making Foreign Direct Investment work for Sub-Saharan Africa: Local Spillovers and Competitiveness in Global Value Chains. Directions in Development. Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar
  206. Fava, J. L. and Velicer, W. F. (1992). 'The Effects of Overextraction on Factor and Component Analysis'. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 27(3), 387–415. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr2703_5
  207. Fernhaber, S. A., McDougall, P. P. and Oviatt, B. M. (2007). 'Exploring the Role of Industry Structure in New Venture Internationalization'. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31(4), 517–542. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00186.x
  208. FIAS (2008). Special Economic Zones – Performance, Lessons Learned, and Implications for Zone Development. Washington D.C.: Foreign Investment Advisory Service (FIAS). Open Google Scholar
  209. Financial Times (2011). FDI Global Outlook Report – Manufacturing makes a comeback. London: Financial Times Ltd. Open Google Scholar
  210. Financial Times (2012). The FDI Report 2012 – Global Greenfield Investment Trends. London: Financial Times Ltd. Open Google Scholar
  211. Folta, T. B. and Miller, K. D. (2002). 'Real options in equity partnerships'. Strategic Management Journal, 23(1), 77–88. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.209
  212. Foss, N. J. and Pedersen, T. (2002). 'Transferring knowledge in MNCs: The role of sources of subsidiary knowledge and organizational context'. Journal of International Management, 8(1), 49–67. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S1075-4253(01)00054-0
  213. Foster, V., Butterfield, W., Chen, C. and Pushak, N. (2008). Building Bridges: China’s Growing Role as Infrastructure Financier for Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar
  214. Frölich, M. (2008). 'Parametric and Nonparametric Regression in the Presence of Endogenous Control Variables'. International Statistical Review, 76(2), 214–227. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-5823.2008.00045.x
  215. Fujita, M. (1995a). 'Small and medium-sized transnational corporations: Salient features'. Small Business Economics, 7(4), 251–271. Open Google Scholar
  216. Fujita, M. (1995b). 'Small and medium-sized transnational corporations: Trends and patterns of foreign direct investment'. Small Business Economics, 7(3), 183–204. Open Google Scholar
  217. Fujita, M. (2008). 'A critical assessment of FDI data and policy implications'. Transnational Corporations, 17(2), 107–126. Open Google Scholar
  218. Gallagher, K. B. and Birch, M. B. L. (2006). 'Do Investment Agreements Attract Investment?'. The Journal of World Investment and Trade, 7(6), 961–974. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1163/221190006X00063
  219. Games, D. (2004). The experience of South African firms doing business in Africa – A preliminary survey and analysis. Business in Africa Report No. 1, Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs (SAIIA). Open Google Scholar
  220. Gammelgaard, J., McDonald, F., Stephan, A., Tüselmann, H. and Dörrenbächer, C. (2012). 'The impact of increases in subsidiary autonomy and network relationships on performance'. International Business Review, 21(6), 1158–1172. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2012.01.001
  221. Gastanaga, V. M., Nugent, J. B. and Pashamova, B. (1998). 'Host country reforms and FDI inflows: How much difference do they make?'. World Development, 26(7), 1299–1314. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(98)00049-7
  222. Gatignon, H. and Anderson, E. (1988). 'The Multinational Corporation's Degree of Control over Foreign Subsidiaries: An Empirical Test of a Transaction Cost Explanation'. Journal of Law, Economics, & Organization, 4(2), 305–336. Open Google Scholar
  223. Gaur, A. S., Delios, A. and Singh, K. (2007). 'Institutional Environments, Staffing Strategies, and Subsidiary Performance'. Journal of Management, 33(4), 611–636. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1177/0149206307302551
  224. Gaur, A. S. and Lu, J. W. (2007). 'Ownership Strategies and Survival of Foreign Subsidiaries: Impacts of Institutional Distance and Experience'. Journal of Management, 33(1), 84–110. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1177/0149206306295203
  225. Georgopoulos, A. and Preusse, H. G. (2009). 'Cross-border acquisitions vs. Greenfield investment: A comparative performance analysis in Greece'. International Business Review, 18(6), 592–605. Open Google Scholar
  226. Geringer, J. M., Beamish, P. W. and daCosta, R. C. (1989). 'Diversification Strategy and Internationalization: Implications for MNE Performance'. Strategic Management Journal, 10(2), 109–119. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250100202
  227. Geringer, J. M. and Hébert, L. (1991). 'Measuring Performance of International Joint Ventures'. Journal of International Business Studies, 22(2), 249–263. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490302
  228. Ghoshal, S. and Bartlett, C. A. (1990). 'The Multinational Corporation as an Interorganizational Network'. The Academy of Management Review, 15(4), 603–625. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.5465/amr.1990.4310825
  229. Gil, A., Nakos, G., Brouthers, L. E. and Brouthers, K. D. (2006). 'Country-specific strategy and new venture formation in Central and East Europe'. International Business Review, 15(1), 1–13. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2005.12.001
  230. Gilroy, B. M., Gries, T., Naudé, W., Schmidt, K.-H. and Bauer, N. (2001). Multinational Enterprises in Africa – A Study of German Firms in South Africa. Munich Personal RePEc Archive Paper No. 17868. Open Google Scholar
  231. Girma, S., Greenaway, A. and Kneller, R. (2004). 'Does Exporting Increase Productivity? A Microeconometric Analysis of Matched Firms'. Review of International Economics, 12(5), 855–866. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9396.2004.00486.x
  232. Glaister, K. W. and Buckley, P. J. (1996). 'Strategic Motives For International Alliance Formation'. Journal of Management Studies, 33(3), 301–332. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.1996.tb00804.x
  233. Globerman, S. and Shapiro, D. (2003). 'Governance Infrastructure and US Foreign Direct Investment'. Journal of International Business Studies, 34(1), 19–39. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400001
  234. Gohou, G. and Soumaré, I. (2009). Impact of FDI on Poverty Reduction in Africa: Are there Regional Differences? Conference Paper presented at “African Economic Conference 2009 – Fostering Development in an Era of Financial and Economic Crises”, 11–13 November 2009 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Open Google Scholar
  235. Gomes-Casseres, B. (1987). 'Joint Venture Instability: Is It A Problem?'. Columbia Journal of World Business, 22(2), 97–102. Open Google Scholar
  236. Gomes-Casseres, B. (1989). 'Ownership structures of foreign subsidiaries: Theory and evidence'. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 11(1), 1–25. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/0167-2681(89)90061-9
  237. Gomes-Casseres, B. (1990). 'Firm Ownership Preferences and Host Government Restrictions: An Integrated Approach'. Journal of International Business Studies, 21(1), 1–22. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490324
  238. Gomes, L. and Ramaswamy, K. (1999). 'An Empirical Examination of the Form of the Relationship between Multinationality and Performance'. Journal of International Business Studies, 30(1), 173–187. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490065
  239. Gomez-Mejia, L. R. and Palich, L. E. (1997). 'Cultural Diversity and the Performance of Multinational Firms'. Journal of International Business Studies, 28(2), 309–335. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490103
  240. Gómez-Mera, L., Kenyon, T., Margalit, Y., Reis, J. G. and Varela, G. (2015). New Voices in Investment: A Survey of Investors from Emerging Countries. Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar
  241. Görg, H. and Seric, A. (2013). With a little help from my friends: Supplying to multinationals, buying from multinationals, and domestic firm performance. Working Paper No. 1867. Kiel: Kiel Institute for the World Economy. Open Google Scholar
  242. Grobbelaar, N. (2004). Every Continent Needs an America – The Experience of South African Firms Doing Business in Mozambique. Business in Africa Report No. 2, Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs (SAIIA). Open Google Scholar
  243. GTZ (2008). Chinas Engagement in Afrika – Chancen und Risiken für Entwicklung. Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit. Open Google Scholar
  244. Gu, J. (2009). 'China's Private Enterprises in Africa and the Implications for African Development'. European Journal of Development Research, 21(4), 570–587. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2009.21
  245. Haar, L. N. and Marinescu, N. (2014). 'Entry Modes and Firm Performance in a Transition Economy: Evidence from Inward FDI to Romania'. Journal of East-West Business, 20(1), 44–67. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1080/10669868.2013.862515
  246. Haberly, D. and Wójcik, D. (2015). 'Regional Blocks and Imperial Legacies: Mapping the Global Offshore FDI Network'. Economic Geography, 91(3), 251–280. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/ecge.12078
  247. Hair, J. F., Tatham, R. M., Anderson, R. E. and Black, W. (1998). Multivariate Data Analysis. 5th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Open Google Scholar
  248. Hallward-Driemeyer, M. (2003). Do bilateral investment treaties attract foreign direct investment? Only a bit…and they could bite. Policy Research Working Paper No. 3121, Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-3121
  249. Hamel, G. (1991). 'Competition for competence and inter-partner learning within international strategic alliances'. Strategic Management Journal, 12(S1), 83–103. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250120908
  250. Hanson II, J. R. (1996). 'Human Capital and Direct Investment in Poor Countries'. Explorations in Economic History, 33(1), 86–106. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1006/exeh.1996.0004
  251. Harding, T. and Javorcik, B. S. (2007). Developing Economies and International Investors: Do Investment Promotion Agencies Bring Them Together? Policy Research Working Paper No. 4339, Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar
  252. Harding, T. and Javorcik, B. S. (2011). 'Roll Out the Red Carpet and They Will Come: Investment Promotion and FDI Inflows'. The Economic Journal, 121(557), 1445–1476. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2011.02454.x
  253. Harzing, A.-W. (2002). 'Acquisitions versus Greenfield Investments: International Strategy and Management of Entry Modes'. Strategic Management Journal, 23(3), 211–227. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.218
  254. Hatch, N. W. and Dyer, J. H. (2004). 'Human capital and learning as a source of sustainable competitive advantage'. Strategic Management Journal, 25(12), 1155–1178. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.421
  255. Hawawini, G., Subramanian, V. and Verdin, P. (2004). 'The home country in the age of globalization: how much does it matter for firm performance?'. Journal of World Business, 39(2), 121–135. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2003.08.012
  256. He, X., Zhang, J. and Wang, J. (2015). 'Market Seeking Orientation and Performance in China: The Impact of Institutional Environment, Subsidiary Ownership Structure and Experience'. Management International Review, 55(3), 389–419. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/s11575-014-0227-2
  257. Head, K., Ries, J. and Swenson, D. (1995). 'Agglomeration benefits and location choice: Evidence from Japanese manufacturing investments in the United States'. Journal of International Economics, 38(3–4), 223–247. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/0022-1996(94)01351-R
  258. Heckman, J. J. (1979). 'Sample Selection Bias as a Specification Error'. Econometrica, 47(1), 153–161. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/1912352
  259. Hedlund, G. (1986). 'The hypermodern MNC – A heterarchy?'. Human Resource Management, 25(1), 9–35. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/hrm.3930250103
  260. Heide, J. B. and Stump, R. L. (1995). 'Performance implications of buyer-supplier relationships in industrial markets: A transaction cost explanation'. Journal of Business Research, 32(1), 57–66. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/0148-2963(94)00010-C
  261. Henisz, W. J. and Delios, A. (2001). 'Uncertainty, Imitation, and Plant Location: Japanese Multinational Corporations, 1990–1996'. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46(3), 443–475. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/3094871
  262. Henley, J., Kratzsch, S., Kulur, M. and Tandogan, T. (2008). Foreign Direct Investment from China, India and South Africa in Sub-Saharan Africa: A New or Old Phenomenon? UNU–WIDER Research Paper No. 2008/24, Helsinki: United Nations University and World Institute for Development Economics Research. Open Google Scholar
  263. Hennart, J.-F. (1991). 'The Transaction Costs Theory of Joint Ventures: An Empirical Study of Japanese Subsidiaries in the United States'. Management Science, 37(4), 483–497. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.37.4.483
  264. Hennart, J.-F., Kim, D.-J. and Zeng, M. (1998). 'The impact of joint venture status on the longevity of Japanese stakes in U.S. manufacturing affiliates'. Organization Science, 9(3), 382–395. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1287/orsc.9.3.382
  265. Hennart, J.-F. and Larimo, J. (1998). 'The impact of culture on the strategy of multinational enterprises: Does national origin affect ownership decisions?'. Journal of International Business Studies, 29(3), 515–538. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490005
  266. Hennart, J.-F. and Park, Y.-R. (1993). 'Greenfield vs. Acquisition: The Strategy of Japanese Investors in the United States'. Management Science, 39(9), 1054–1070. Open Google Scholar
  267. Hennart, J.-F. and Reddy, S. (1997). 'The Choice Between Mergers/Acquisitions and joint ventures: The case of Japanese Investors in the United States'. Strategic Management Journal, 18(1), 1–12. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199701)18:1<1::AID-SMJ862>3.0.CO;2-R
  268. Hennart, J.-F., Roehl, T. and Zietlow, D. S. (1999). '‘Trojan horse’ or ‘Workhorse’? The evolution of U.S.–Japanese joint ventures in the United States'. Strategic Management Journal, 20(1), 15–29. Open Google Scholar
  269. Henson, R. K. and Roberts, J. K. (2006). 'Use of Exploratory Factor Analysis in Published Research: Common Errors and Some Comment on Improved Practice'. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(3), 393–416. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1177/0013164405282485
  270. Herfindahl, O. (1950). Concentration in the U.S. Steel Industry. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Columbia University. Open Google Scholar
  271. Hewett, K., Roth, M. S. and Roth, K. (2003). 'Conditions Influencing Headquarters and Foreign Subsidiary Roles in Marketing Activities and Their Effects on Performance'. Journal of International Business Studies, 34(6), 567–585. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400054
  272. Hirschman, A. O. (1964). 'The Paternity of an Index'. The American Economic Review, 54(5), 761–762. Open Google Scholar
  273. Hitt, M. A., Hoskisson, R. E. and Hicheon, K. (1997). 'International Diversification: Effects on Innovation and Firm Performance in Product-Diversified Firms'. The Academy of Management Journal, 40(4), 767–798. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/256948
  274. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. Open Google Scholar
  275. Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J. and Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. 3rd Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Open Google Scholar
  276. Hoskisson, R. E. and Hitt, M. A. (1990). 'Antecedents and Performance Outcomes of Diversification: A Review and Critique of Theoretical Perspectives'. Journal of Management, 16(2), 461–509. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1177/014920639001600210
  277. Huber, G. P. and Power, D. J. (1985). 'Retrospective reports of strategic-level managers: Guidelines for increasing their accuracy'. Strategic Management Journal, 6(2), 171–180. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250060206
  278. Hult, G. T. M., Ketchen, D. J., Griffith, D. A., Chabowski, B. R., Hamman, M. K., Dykes, B. J., Pollitte, W. A. and Cavusgil, S. T. (2008). 'An Assessment of the Measurement of Performance in International Business Research'. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(6), 1064–1080. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400398
  279. Hymer, S. H. (1976). The International Operations of National Firms: A Study of Direct Foreign Investment. Cambridge: MIT Press. Open Google Scholar
  280. Ibeh, K. I. N. (2005). 'Toward a Greater Level of International Entrepreneurship among Smaller Agribusiness Firms: Resource Levers and Strategic Options'. Management International Review, 45(3), 59–81. Open Google Scholar
  281. IMF (1993). Balance of Payments Manual. 5th Edition (BPM–5). Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  282. IMF (2003). Foreign Direct Investment Statistics: How Countries measure FDI. Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  283. IMF (2009). Balance of Payments and International Investment Position Manual. 6th Edition (BPM–6). Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  284. IMF (2010). Coordinated Direct Investment Survey Guide. Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  285. IMF (2011a). Quarterly International Investment Position Statistics – Data Sources and Compilation Techniques. Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  286. IMF (2011b). Regional Economic Outlook Sub-Saharan Africa – Sustaining the Expansion. October 2011, Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  287. IMF (2012). Regional Economic Outlook Sub-Saharan Africa – Maintaining Growth in an Uncertain World. October 2012, Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  288. IMF (2013). The General Data Dissemination System: Guide for Participants and Users. Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  289. IMF (2014a). Balance of Payments and International Investment Position Compilation Guide. Companion Document to the Sixth Edition of the Balance of Payments and International Investment Position Manual (BPM6). Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  290. IMF (2014b). Mozambique Rising: Building a New Tomorrow. Washington D.C.: International Monetay Fund. Open Google Scholar
  291. IMF (2014c). Progress on BPM6 Implementation. Paper prepared for the Twenty-Seventh Meeting of the IMF Committee on Balance of Payments Statistics, 27–29 October 2014 in Washington D.C., Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  292. IMF (2014d). World Economic Outlook – Legacies, Clouds, Uncertainties. October 2014, Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.5089/9781484372265.081
  293. Inkpen, A. C. and Beamish, P. W. (1997). 'Knowledge, bargaining power, and the instability of international joint ventures'. The Academy of Management Review, 22(1), 177–202. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.5465/amr.1997.9707180263
  294. Iriyama, A., Shi, W. and Prescott, J. (2014). 'Frequency and directional reversal of equity ownership change in international joint ventures'. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 31(1), 215–243. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/s10490-013-9344-x
  295. Isobe, T., Makino, S. and Montgomery, D. B. (2000). 'Resource Commitment, Entry Timing, and Market Performance of Foreign Direct Investments in Emerging Economies: The Case of Japanese International Joint Ventures in China'. The Academy of Management Journal, 43(3), 468–484. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/1556405
  296. Jabbour, L. and Mucchielli, J. L. (2007). 'Technology Transfer Through Vertical Linkages: The case of the Spanish Manufacturing Industry'. Journal of Applied Economics, 10(1), 115–136. Open Google Scholar
  297. Javorcik, B. S. (2004). 'Does Foreign Direct Investment Increase the Productivity of Domestic Firms? In Search of Spillovers through Backward Linkages'. The American Economic Review, 94(3), 605–627. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1257/0002828041464605
  298. Javorcik, B. S. (2014). Does FDI Bring Good Jobs to Host Countries? Policy Research Working Paper No. 6936. Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar
  299. Javorcik, B. S. and Spatareanu, M. (2009). 'Tough Love: Do Czech Suppliers Learn from their Relationships with Multinationals?'. Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 111(4), 811–833. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9442.2009.01591.x
  300. Jensen, N. M. (2003). 'Democratic Governance and Multinational Corporations: Political Regimes and Inflows of Foreign Direct Investment'. International Organization, 57(3), 587–616. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1017/S0020818303573040
  301. Jerven, M. (2013). Poor Numbers: How We Are Misled by African Development Statistics and What to Do about It. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. Open Google Scholar
  302. Johanson, J. and Vahlne, J.-E. (1977). 'The Internationalization Process of the Firm – A Model of Knowledge Development and Increasing Foreign Market Commitments'. Journal of International Business Studies, 8(1), 23–32. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490676
  303. Johanson, J. and Vahlne, J.-E. (1990). 'The Mechanism of Internationalisation'. International Marketing Review, 7(4), 11–24. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1108/02651339010137414
  304. Johanson, J. and Wiedersheim-Paul, F. (1975). 'The Internationalization of the Firm – Four Swedish cases'. Journal of Management Studies, 12(3), 305–323. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.1975.tb00514.x
  305. Kabelwa, G. (2004). Technology Transfer and South African Investment in Tanzania. Globalisation and East Africa Working Paper 10, Dar es Salaam: Economic and Social Research Foundation. Open Google Scholar
  306. Kaiser, H. F. (1960). 'The Application of Electronic Computers to Factor Analysis'. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20(1), 141–151. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1177/001316446002000116
  307. Kaiser, H. F. and Rice, J. (1974). 'Little Jiffy, Mark IV'. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 34(1), 111–117. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1177/001316447403400115
  308. Kaplinsky, R. and Morris, M. (2008). 'Do the Asian Drivers Undermine Export-oriented Industrialization in SSA?'. World Development, 36(2), 254–273. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.06.007
  309. Kaplinsky, R. and Morris, M. (2009). 'Chinese FDI in Sub-Saharan Africa: Engaging with Large Dragons'. European Journal of Development Research, 21(4), 551–569. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2009.24
  310. Kaynak, E., Demirbag, M. and Tatoglu, E. (2007). 'Determinants of Ownership-based Entry Mode Choice of MNEs: Evidence from Mongolia'. Management International Review, 47(4), 505–530. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/s11575-007-0028-y
  311. Kent, D. H. (1991). 'Joint Ventures vs. Non-Joint Ventures: An Empirical Investigation'. Strategic Management Journal, 12(5), 387–393. Open Google Scholar
  312. Kerner, A. (2014). 'What We Talk About When We Talk About Foreign Direct Investment'. International Studies Quarterly, 58(4), 804–815. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/isqu.12147
  313. Khanna, T. and Palepu, K. (1997). 'Why Focused Strategies May Be Wrong for Emerging Markets'. Harvard Business Review, 75(4), 41–51. Open Google Scholar
  314. Kiggundu, M. N. (2002). 'Entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship in Africa: What is known and what needs to be done'. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 7(3), 239–258. Open Google Scholar
  315. Kim, W. C. and Hwang, P. (1992). 'Global Strategy and Multinationals' Entry Mode Choice'. Journal of International Business Studies, 23(1), 29–53. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490258
  316. Kim, W. C., Hwang, P. and Burgers, W. P. (1993). 'Multinationals' Diversification and the Risk-Return Trade-Off'. Strategic Management Journal, 14(4), 275–286. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250140404
  317. Kim, Y. and Gray, S. (2008). 'The impact of entry mode choice on foreign affiliate performance: The case of foreign MNEs in South Korea'. Management International Review, 48(2), 165–188. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/s11575-008-0010-3
  318. Kindleberger, C. P. (1969). Americal Business Abroad – Six Lectures on Direct Investment. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Open Google Scholar
  319. Knickerbocker, F. T. (1973). Oligopolistic Reaction and the Multinational Enterprise. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Open Google Scholar
  320. Knight, G. A. and Cavusgil, S. T. (2004). 'Innovation, organizational capabilities, and the born-global firm'. Journal of International Business Studies, 35(2), 124–141. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400071
  321. Knight, G. A. and Cavusgil, S. T. (2005). 'A Taxonomy of Born-global Firms'. Management International Review, 45(3), 15–35. Open Google Scholar
  322. Kobrin, S. (2005). 'The Determinants of Liberalization of FDI Policy in Developing Countries: A Cross-sectional Analysis, 1992–2001'. Transnational Corporations, 14(1), 67–104. Open Google Scholar
  323. Kogut, B. (1989). 'The Stability of Joint Ventures: Reciprocity and Competitive Rivalry'. Journal of Industrial Economics, 38(2), 183–198. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/2098529
  324. Kogut, B. (1991). 'Joint Ventures and the Option to Expand and Acquire'. Management Science, 37(1), 19–33. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.37.1.19
  325. Kogut, B. and Singh, H. (1988). 'The Effect of National Culture on the Choice of Entry Mode'. Journal of International Business Studies, 19(3), 411–432. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490394
  326. Kogut, B. and Zander, U. (1992). 'Knowledge of the firm, combinative capabilities, and the replication of technology'. Organization Science, 3(3), 383–397. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1287/orsc.3.3.383
  327. Kogut, B. and Zander, U. (1993). 'Knowledge of the Firm and the Evolutionary Theory of the Multinational Corporation'. Journal of International Business Studies, 24(4), 625–645. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490248
  328. Kolstad, I. and Wiig, A. (2011). 'Better the Devil You Know? Chinese Foreign Direct Investment in Africa'. Journal of African Business, 12(1), 31–50. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1080/1536710X.2011.555259
  329. Konings, P. (2007). 'China and Africa: Building a Strategic Partnership'. Journal of Developing Societies, 23(3), 341–367. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1177/0169796X0702300303
  330. Konopaske, R., Werner, S. and Neupert, K. E. (2002). 'Entry mode strategy and performance: the role of FDI staffing'. Journal of Business Research, 55(9), 759–770. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(00)00185-5
  331. Kostova, T. (1999). 'Transnational Transfer of Strategic Organizational Practices: A Contextual Perspective'. The Academy of Management Review, 24(2), 308–324. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.5465/amr.1999.1893938
  332. Kostova, T. and Zaheer, S. (1999). 'Organizational Legitimacy under Conditions of Complexity: The Case of the Multinational Enterprise'. The Academy of Management Review, 24(1), 64–81. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.5465/amr.1999.1580441
  333. Kotabe, M., Srinivasan, S. S. and Aulakh, P. S. (2002). 'Multinationality and firm performance: The moderating role of R&D and marketing capabilities'. Journal of International Business Studies, 33(1), 79–97. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8491006
  334. KPMG (2012). Malawi – Country Profile. Online at: http://www.kpmg.com/Africa/en/KPMG-in-Africa/Documents/Malawi.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2016). Open Google Scholar
  335. Kragelund, P. (2009). 'Part of the Disease or Part of the Cure? Chinese Investments in the Zambian Mining and Construction Sectors'. European Journal of Development Research, 21(4), 644–661. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2009.23
  336. Kratzsch, S. (2005). The locational determinants of foreign direct investment activities: Implications for Sub-Saharan Africa. Unpublished diploma thesis, Universität Karlsruhe (TH). Open Google Scholar
  337. Kratzsch, S. (2010). Migration and Remittances in Sub-Saharan Africa. Unpublished Paper, Universität Leipzig. Open Google Scholar
  338. Kumar, M. V. S. (2005). 'The value from acquiring and divesting a joint venture: a real options approach'. Strategic Management Journal, 26(4), 321–331. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.449
  339. Kumar, N. (1994). 'Determinants of Export Orientation of Foreign Production by U.S. Multinationals: An Inter-Country Analysis'. Journal of International Business Studies, 25(1), 141–156. Open Google Scholar
  340. Labovitz, S. (1970). 'The Assignment of Numbers to Rank Order Categories'. American Sociological Review, 35(3), 515–524. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/2092993
  341. Lall, S. (2005). 'FDI, AGOA and Manufactured Exports by a Landlocked, Least Developed African Economy: Lesotho'. Journal of Development Studies, 41(6), 998–1022. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1080/00220380500155254
  342. Lane, P., Salk, J. E. and Lyles, M. A. (2001). 'Absorptive capacity, learning, and performance in international joint ventures'. Strategic Management Journal, 22(12), 1139–1161. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.206
  343. Larsson, R., Bengtsson, L., Henriksson, K. and Sparks, J. (1998). 'The Interorganizational Learning Dilemma: Collective Knowledge Development in Strategic Alliances'. Organization Science, 9(3), 285–305. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1287/orsc.9.3.285
  344. Lee, S. H. and Williams, C. (2007). 'Dispersed entrepreneurship within multinational corporations: A community perspective'. Journal of World Business, 42(4), 505–519. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2007.08.001
  345. Li, J. (1995). 'Foreign entry and survival: Effects of strategic choices on performance in international markets'. Strategic Management Journal, 16(5), 333–351. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250160502
  346. Li, J. and Guisinger, S. (1991). 'Comparative Business Failures of Foreign-Controlled Firms in the United States'. Journal of International Business Studies, 22(2), 209–224. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490300
  347. Li, J. and Guisinger, S. (1992). 'The Globalization of Service Multinationals in the "Triad" Regions: Japan, Western Europe and North America'. Journal of International Business Studies, 23(4), 675–696. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490283
  348. Li, Q. and Resnick, A. (2003). 'Reversal of Fortunes: Democratic Institutions and Foreign Direct Investment Inflows to Developing Countries'. International Organization, 57(1), 175–211. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1017/S0020818303571077
  349. Lipsey, R. E. (1999). The role of foreign direct investment in international capital flows. NBER Working Paper No. 7094, Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research. Open Google Scholar
  350. Lipsey, R. E. (2007). Defining and measuring the location of FDI output. NBER Working Paper No. 12996, Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.3386/w12996
  351. Loane, S. and Bell, J. (2006). 'Rapid internationalisation among entrepreneurial firms in Australia, Canada, Ireland and New Zealand: An extension to the network approach'. International Marketing Review, 23(5), 467–485. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1108/02651330610703409
  352. López-Duarte, C. and Vidal-Suárez, M. M. (2008). 'Foreign Direct Investment through Partial Acquisitions: Hostage Effect or Conflicts Enhancement'. Journal of Management and Governance, 12(3), 287–308. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/s10997-008-9061-x
  353. López-Duarte, C. and Vidal-Suárez, M. M. (2010). 'External uncertainty and entry mode choice: Cultural distance, political risk and language diversity'. International Business Review, 19(6), 575–588. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2010.03.007
  354. Loree, D. W. and Guisinger, S. (1995). 'Policy and Non-Policy Determinants of U.S. Equity Foreign Direct Investment'. Journal of International Business Studies, 26(2), 281–299. Open Google Scholar
  355. Lu, J. W. and Beamish, P. W. (2001). 'The Internationalization and Performance of SMEs'. Strategic Management Journal, 22(6/7), 565–586. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.184
  356. Lu, J. W. and Beamish, P. W. (2004). 'International Diversification and Firm Performance: The S-Curve Hypothesis'. The Academy of Management Journal, 47(4), 598–609. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/20159604
  357. Lu, J. W. and Beamish, P. W. (2006). 'Partnering strategies and performance of SMEs' international joint ventures'. Journal of Business Venturing, 21(4), 461–486. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2005.02.002
  358. Lu, J. W. and Xu, D. (2006). 'Growth and Survival of International Joint Ventures: An External–Internal Legitimacy Perspective'. Journal of Management, 32(3), 426–448. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1177/0149206305281399
  359. Lubatkin, M. and Chatterjee, S. (1994). 'Extending Modern Portfolio Theory into the Domain of Corporate Diversification: Does It Apply?'. The Academy of Management Journal, 37(1), 109–136. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/256772
  360. Lumbila, K. N. (2005). What Makes FDI Work? A Panel Analysis of the Growth Effect of FDI in Africa. Africa Region Working Paper No. 80, Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar
  361. Lundan, S. M. (2006). 'Reinvested earnings as a component of FDI: an analytical review of the determinants of reinvestment'. Transnational Corporations, 15(3), 35–66. Open Google Scholar
  362. Luo, Y. (1997). 'Partner Selection and Venturing Success: The Case of Joint Ventures with Firms in the People's Republic of China'. Organization Science, 8(6), 648–662. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1287/orsc.8.6.648
  363. Luo, Y. (1999). 'The Structure-Performance Relationship in a Transitional Economy: An Empirical Study of Multinational Alliances in China'. Journal of Business Research, 46(1), 15–30. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(98)00023-X
  364. Luo, Y. (2001). 'Determinants of Entry in an Emerging Economy: A Multilevel Approach'. Journal of Management Studies, 38(3), 443–472. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/1467-6486.00244
  365. Luo, Y. and Park, S. H. (2001). 'Strategic Alignment and Performance of Market-Seeking MNCs in China'. Strategic Management Journal, 22(2), 141–155. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/1097-0266(200101)22:2<141::AID-SMJ151>3.0.CO;2-O
  366. Luo, Y. and Peng, M. W. (1999). 'Learning to Compete in a Transition Economy: Experience, Environment, and Performance'. Journal of International Business Studies, 30(2), 269–295. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490070
  367. Luo, Y., Shenkar, O. and Nyaw, M.-K. (2001). 'A Dual Parent Perspective on Control and Performance in International Joint Ventures: Lessons from a Developing Economy'. Journal of International Business Studies, 32(1), 41–58. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490937
  368. Lyles, M. A. (1994). 'The impact of organizational learning on joint venture formations'. International Business Review, 3(4), 459–467. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/0969-5931(94)90034-5
  369. Lyles, M. A. and Salk, J. E. (1996). 'Knowledge acquisition from foreign parents in international joint ventures: An empirical examination in the Hungarian context'. Journal of International Business Studies, 27(5), 877–903. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490155
  370. Maekelburger, B., Schwens, C. and Kabst, R. (2012). 'Asset specificity and foreign market entry mode choice of small and medium-sized enterprises: The moderating influence of knowledge safeguards and institutional safeguards'. Journal of International Business Studies, 43(5), 458–476. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2012.12
  371. Mahnke, V. and Venzin, M. (2003). 'The Internationalization Process of Digital Information Good Providers'. Management International Review, 43(1), 115–143. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/978-3-663-01562-8_7
  372. Makino, S. and Beamish, P. W. (1998). 'Local Ownership Restrictions, Entry Mode Choice, and FDI Performance: Japanese Overseas Subsidiaries in Asia'. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 15(2), 119–136. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1023/A:1015481312926
  373. Makino, S. and Delios, A. (1996). 'Local knowledge transfer and performance: Implications for alliance formation in Asia'. Journal of International Business Studies, 27(5), 905–927. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490156
  374. Makino, S., Isobe, T. and Chan, C. M. (2004). 'Does country matter?'. Strategic Management Journal, 25(10), 1027–1043. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.412
  375. Makino, S. and Neupert, K. E. (2000). 'National culture, transaction costs, and the choice between joint venture and wholly owned subsidiary'. Journal of International Business Studies, 31(4), 705–713. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490930
  376. Malefane, M. R. (2007). 'Determinants of foreign direct investment in Lesotho: Evidence from cointegration and error correction modeling'. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, 10(1), 99–106. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.4102/sajems.v10i1.539
  377. Markides, C. C. (1992). 'Consequences of Corporate Refocusing: Ex Ante Evidence'. The Academy of Management Journal, 35(2), 398–412. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/256379
  378. Marschan, R., Welch, D. and Welch, L. (1996). 'Control in less-hierarchical multinationals: The role of personal networks and informal communication'. International Business Review, 5(2), 137–150. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/0969-5931(96)00002-9
  379. Martin, X. (2013). 'Solving theoretical and empirical conundrums in international strategy research: Linking foreign entry mode choices and performance'. Journal of International Business Studies, 44(1), 28–41. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2012.29
  380. Mata, J. and Portugal, P. (2004). 'Patterns of Entry, Post-Entry Growth and Survival: A Comparison Between Domestic and Foreign Owned Firms'. Small Business Economics, 22(3), 283–298. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1023/B:SBEJ.0000022219.25772.ca
  381. Mayrhofer, U. (2004). 'International Market Entry: Does the Home Country Affect Entry-Mode Decisions?'. Journal of International Marketing, 12(4), 71–96. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1509/jimk.12.4.71.53211
  382. McCloughan, P. and Stone, I. (1998). 'Life duration of foreign multinational subsidiaries: Evidence from UK northern manufacturing industry 1970–93'. International Journal of Industrial Organization, 16(6), 719–747. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0167-7187(97)00070-2
  383. McDonald, F., Warhurst, S. and Allen, M. (2008). 'Autonomy, Embeddedness, and the Performance of Foreign Owned Subsidiaries'. Multinational Business Review, 16(3), 73–92. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1108/1525383X200800014
  384. McGahan, A. M. and Porter, M. E. (1997). 'How Much Does Industry Matter, Really?'. Strategic Management Journal, 18, 15–30. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199707)18:1+<15::AID-SMJ916>3.3.CO;2-T
  385. McGrath, R. G. and Nerkar, A. (2004). 'Real options reasoning and a new look at the R&D investment strategies of pharmaceutical firms'. Strategic Management Journal, 25(1), 1–21. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.358
  386. McKinsey Global Institute (2010). Lions on the move: The progress and potential of African economies. Online at: http://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/middle-east-and-africa/lions-on-the-move (accessed on 7 July 2016). Open Google Scholar
  387. McLure, J. (2008). 'Ethiopia’s rosy harvest'. The Africa Report, No. 11 (June–July), 62–64. Open Google Scholar
  388. McMillan, M. S. and Harttgen, K. (2014). What is driving the ‘African Growth Miracle’? NBER Working Paper No. 20077, Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.3386/w20077
  389. Meyer, K. E. and Nguyen, H. V. (2005). 'Foreign Investment Strategies and Sub-national Institutions in Emerging Markets: Evidence from Vietnam'. Journal of Management Studies, 42(1), 63–93. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2005.00489.x
  390. Meyer, K. E. and Sinani, E. (2009). 'When and where does foreign direct investment generate positive spillovers? A meta-analysis'. Journal of International Business Studies, 40(7), 1075–1094. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2008.111
  391. MIGA (2014). World Investment and Political Risk 2013. Washington D.C.: Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency. Open Google Scholar
  392. Miller, C. C., Cardinal, L. B. and Glick, W. H. (1997). 'Retrospective Reports in Organizational Research: A Reexamination of Recent Evidence'. The Academy of Management Journal, 40(1), 189–204. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/257026
  393. Miller, S. R. and Eden, L. (2006). 'Local Density and Foreign Subsidiary Performance'. The Academy of Management Journal, 49(2), 341–355. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2006.20786081
  394. Mitchell, W., Shaver, J. M. and Yeung, B. (1994). 'Foreign entrant survival and foreign market share: Canadian companies’ experience in United States medical sector markets'. Strategic Management Journal, 15(7), 555–567. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250150705
  395. Miyamoto, K. (2003). Human Capital Formation and Foreign Direct Investment in Developing Countries. OECD Development Centre Working Paper No. 211, Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1787/646400335388
  396. Mlachila, M. and Takebe, M. (2011). FDI from BRICs to LICs: Emerging Growth Driver? Working Paper 11/178, Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  397. Mlambo, K. (2005). 'Reviving Foreign Direct Investments in Southern Africa: Constraints and Policies'. African Development Review, 17(3), 552–579. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1017-6772.2006.00128.x
  398. Mohamad, N. and Hoshino, Y. (2012). 'Survival and Financial Performance of Japanese Subsidiaries in Malaysia and Thailand'. Business and Management Review, 2(4), 21–41. Open Google Scholar
  399. Mohan, G. and Lampert, B. (2013). 'Negotiating China: Reinserting African agency into China – Africa relations'. African Affairs, 112(446), 92–110. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1093/afraf/ads065
  400. Montgomery, C. A. and Porter, M. E. (Eds.) (1991). Strategy: Seeking and Securing Competitive Advantage. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Open Google Scholar
  401. Moran, T. H. (2001). Parental Supervision: The New Paradigm for Foreign Direct Investment and Development. Washington D.C.: Peterson Institute for International Economics. Open Google Scholar
  402. Moran, T. H. (2002). Strategy and Tactics for the Doha Round: Capturing the Benefits of Foreign Direct Investment. Manila: Asian Development Bank. Open Google Scholar
  403. Morisset, J. (2000). 'Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: Policies also Matter'. Transnational Corporations, 9(2), 107–125. Open Google Scholar
  404. Morosini, P., Shane, S. and Singh, H. (1998). 'National Cultural Distance and Cross-Border Acquisition Performance'. Journal of International Business Studies, 29(1), 137–158. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490029
  405. Morrison, C. J. (1993). A Microeconomic Approach to the Measurement of Economic Performance. New York: Springer-Verlag. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-9760-1
  406. Morrison, T. (2013). Mid-Term Evaluation Report on the Enhanced Data Dissemination Initiative Project. Washington D.C.: Internatonal Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  407. Morrissey, O. and Osei, R. (2004). 'Capital Flows to Developing Countries: Trends, Volatility and Policy Implications'. IDS Bulletin, 35(1), 40–49. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2004.tb00107.x
  408. Mudambi, R. (1998). 'The Role of Duration in Multinational Investment Strategies'. Journal of International Business Studies, 29(2), 239–261. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490035
  409. Mudambi, R. and Zahra, S. A. (2007). 'The survival of international new ventures'. Journal of International Business Studies, 38(2), 333–352. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400264
  410. Murray, J. Y., Wildt, A. R. and Kotabe, M. (1995). 'Global Sourcing Strategies of U. S. Subsidiaries of Foreign Multinationals'. Management International Review, 35(4), 307–324. Open Google Scholar
  411. Mutinelli, M. and Piscitello, L. (1998a). 'The entry mode choice of MNEs: an evolutionary approach'. Research Policy, 27(5), 491–506. Open Google Scholar
  412. Mutinelli, M. and Piscitello, L. (1998b). 'The Influence of Firm's Size and International Experience on the Ownership Structure of Italian FDI in Manufacturing'. Small Business Economics, 11(1), 43–56. Open Google Scholar
  413. Naidu, S. and Lutchman, J. (2004). Understanding South Africa’s Engagement in the Region: Has the Leopard Changed its Spots? Paper presented at Conference “Stability, Poverty Reduction, and South African Trade and Investment in Southern Africa”, 29–30 March 2004 in Pretoria, South Africa. Open Google Scholar
  414. Nanda, R. and Khanna, T. (2010). 'Diasporas and Domestic Entrepreneurs: Evidence from the Indian Software Industry'. Journal of Economics & Management Strategy, 19(4), 991–1012. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-9134.2010.00275.x
  415. Naudé, W. and Krugell, W. (2003). 'Developing human resources to attract foreign direct investment in Africa'. Management Dynamics, 12(3), 2–12. Open Google Scholar
  416. Naudé, W. and Krugell, W. (2007). 'Investigating geography and institutions as determinants of foreign direct investment in Africa using panel data'. Applied Economics, 39(10), 1223–1233. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1080/00036840600567686
  417. Nelson, R. A. (1989). 'On the Measurement of Capacity Utilization'. Journal of Industrial Economics, 37(3), 273–286. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/2098615
  418. Neumayer, E. and Spess, L. (2005). 'Do bilateral investment treaties increase foreign direct investment to developing countries?'. World Development, 33(10), 1567–1585. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.07.001
  419. Newbert, S. L. (2007). 'Empirical research on the resource-based view of the firm: an assessment and suggestions for future research'. Strategic Management Journal, 28(2), 121–146. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.573
  420. Ngobo, P. V. and Fouda, M. (2012). 'Is ‘Good’ governance good for business? A cross-national analysis of firms in African countries'. Journal of World Business, 47(3), 435–449. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2011.05.010
  421. Nicoletti, G., Golub, S., Hajkova, D., Mirza, D. and Yoo, K.-Y. (2003). Policies and International Integration: Influences on Trade and Foreign Direct Investment. OECD Economics Department Working Paper No. 359, Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1787/062321126487
  422. Nitsch, D., Beamish, P. and Makino, S. (1996). 'Entry mode and performance of Japanese FDI in Western Europe'. Management International Review, 36(1), 27–43. Open Google Scholar
  423. Noorbakhsh, F., Paloni, A. and Youssef, A. (2001). 'Human Capital and FDI Inflows to Developing Countries: New Empirical Evidence'. World Development, 29(9), 1593–1610. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00054-7
  424. North, D. C. (1990). Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511808678
  425. Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric Theory. 2nd Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Open Google Scholar
  426. O’Brien, R. M. (2007). 'A Caution Regarding Rules of Thumb for Variance Inflation Factors'. Quality & Quantity, 41(5), 673–690. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/s11135-006-9018-6
  427. Ocampo, J. A., Kregel, J. and Griffith-Jones, S. (2007). International Finance and Development. London: Zed Books. Open Google Scholar
  428. OECD (2005a). OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2005. Paris: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1787/sti_scoreboard-2005-en
  429. OECD (2005b). Regulatory environment for foreign direct investment. Draft overview study prepared by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Secretariat for “NEPAD/OECD Investment Initiative Roundtable – Investment for African Development: Making it Happen”, 25–27 May 2005 in Entebbe, Uganda. Open Google Scholar
  430. OECD (2008). OECD Benchmark Definition of Foreign Direct Investment. 4th Edition. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Open Google Scholar
  431. OECD (2010). OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Tax Administrations 2010. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1787/tpg-2010-en
  432. OECD (2014a). Geographical Distribution of Financial Flows to Developing Countries: Disbursements, Commitments, Country Indicators. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Open Google Scholar
  433. OECD (2014b). OECD International Direct Investment Statistics. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Open Google Scholar
  434. OECD (2014c). Tax Transparency 2014: Report on Progress. Global Forum on Transparency and Exchange of Information for Tax Purposes, Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1787/9789264217768-en
  435. OECD (2015). Progress Report to the G20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors: Update on Effectiveness and On-Going Monitoring. Report prepared by the Secretary-General of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development for the G20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors Meeting. 9–10 February 2015 in Istanbul, Turkey. Open Google Scholar
  436. Ogasavara, M. H. and Hoshino, Y. (2009). 'Implications of Firm Experiential Knowledge and Sequential FDI on Performance of Japanese Subsidiaries in Brazil'. Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting, 33(1), 37–58. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/s11156-008-0103-x
  437. Okeahalam, C. C. and Wood, S. (2009). 'Financing internationalisation: a case study of an African retail transnational corporation'. Journal of Economic Geography, 9(4), 511–537. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbn056
  438. Onyeiwu, S. and Shrestha, H. (2004). 'Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment in Africa'. Journal of Developing Societies, 20(1–2), 89–106. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1177/0169796X04048305
  439. Oviatt, B. M. and McDougall, P. P. (1994). 'Toward a Theory of International New Ventures'. Journal of International Business Studies, 25(1), 45–64. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490193
  440. Oviatt, B. M. and McDougall, P. P. (2005). 'Defining International Entrepreneurship and Modeling the Speed of Internationalization'. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 29(5), 537–554. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2005.00097.x
  441. Oxley, J. E. (1999). 'Institutional environment and the mechanisms of governance: the impact of intellectual property protection on the structure of inter-firm alliances'. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 38(3), 283–309. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0167-2681(99)00011-6
  442. Oya, C. (2012). 'Contract Farming in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Survey of Approaches, Debates and Issues'. Journal of Agrarian Change, 12(1), 1–33. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0366.2011.00337.x
  443. Oyelaran-Oyeyinka, B. (2006). Learning to Compete in African Industry: Institutions and Technology in Development. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. Open Google Scholar
  444. Oyelaran-Oyeyinka, B. and Barclay, L. A. (2004). 'Human Capital and Systems of Innovation in African Development'. African Development Review, 16(1), 115–138. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8268.2004.00086.x
  445. Padmanabhan, P. and Cho, K. R. (1995). 'Methodological issues in International Business Studies: The case of foreign establishment mode decisions by multinational firms'. International Business Review, 4(1), 55–73. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/0969-5931(94)00031-G
  446. Padmanabhan, P. and Cho, K. R. (1996). 'Ownership strategy for a foreign affiliate: An empirical investigation of Japanese firms'. Management International Review, 36(1), 45–65. Open Google Scholar
  447. Padmanabhan, P. and Cho, K. R. (1999). 'Decision Specific Experience in Foreign Ownership and Establishment Strategies: Evidence from Japanese Firms'. Journal of International Business Studies, 30(1), 25–43. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490059
  448. Page, J. (2012). 'Can Africa Industrialise?'. Journal of African Economies, 21 (AERC Supplement 2), ii86–ii124. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1093/jae/ejr045
  449. Page, S. and te Velde, D. W. (2004). Foreign direct investment by African countries. Paper prepared for “InWent/UNCTAD meeting on FDI in Africa”, 22–24 November 2004 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Open Google Scholar
  450. Palich, L. E., Cardinal, L. B. and Miller, C. C. (2000). 'Curvilinearity in the Diversification-Performance Linkage: An Examination of over Three Decades of Research'. Strategic Management Journal, 21(2), 155–174. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(200002)21:2<155::AID-SMJ82>3.0.CO;2-2
  451. Palich, L. E. and Gomez-Mejia, L. R. (1999). 'A Theory of Global Strategy and Firm Efficiencies: Considering the Effects of Cultural Diversity'. Journal of Management, 25(4), 587–606. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1177/014920639902500406
  452. Pan, Y. (1996). 'Influences on Foreign Equity Ownership Level in Joint Ventures in China'. Journal of International Business Studies, 27(1), 1–26. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490123
  453. Pan, Y. (2002). 'Equity ownership in international joint ventures: The impact of source country factors'. Journal of International Business Studies, 33(2), 375–384. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8491022
  454. Pan, Y. and Chi, P. S. K. (1999). 'Financial performance and survival of multinational corporations in China'. Strategic Management Journal, 20(4), 359–374. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199904)20:4<359::AID-SMJ31>3.0.CO;2-9
  455. Pan, Y., Li, S. and Tse, D. K. (1999). 'The Impact of Order and Mode of Market Entry on Profitability and Market Share'. Journal of International Business Studies, 30(1), 81–103. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490061
  456. Park, S. H. and Russo, M. V. (1996). 'When Competition Eclipses Cooperation: An Event History Analysis of Joint Venture Failure'. Management Science, 42(6), 875–890. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.42.6.875
  457. Park, S. H. and Ungson, G. R. (1997). 'The Effect of National Culture, Organizational Complementarity, and Economic Motivation on Joint Venture Dissolution'. The Academy of Management Journal, 40(2), 279–307. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/256884
  458. Patterson, N., Montanjees, M., Motala, J. and Cardillo, C. (2004). Foreign Direct Investment: Trends, Data Availability, Concepts, and Recording Practices. Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  459. Peng, M. W., Wang, D. Y. L. and Jiang, Y. (2008). 'An Institution-Based View of International Business Strategy: A Focus on Emerging Economies'. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(5), 920–936. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400377
  460. Pennings, J. M., Barkema, H. and Douma, S. (1994). 'Organizational Learning and Diversification'. The Academy of Management Journal, 37(3), 608–640. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/256702
  461. Penrose, E. (1956). 'Foreign Investment and the Growth of the Firm'. The Economic Journal, 66(262), 220–235. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/2227966
  462. Penrose, E. (1959). The Theory of the Growth of the Firm. Oxford: Blackwell. Open Google Scholar
  463. Petersen, B., Pedersen, T. and Lyles, M. A. (2008). 'Closing Knowledge Gaps in Foreign Markets'. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(7), 1097–1113. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400409
  464. Peterson, R. A. (1994). 'A Meta-Analysis of Cronbach's Coefficient Alpha'. Journal of Consumer Research, 21(2), 381–391. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1086/209405
  465. Phelps, N. A., Stillwell, J. C. H. and Wanjiru, R. (2008). 'Missing the GO in AGOA? Growth and constraints of foreign direct investment in the Kenyan clothing industry'. Transnational Corporations, 17(2), 67–106. Open Google Scholar
  466. Pigato, M. A. (2000). Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: Old tales and new evidence. Africa Region Working Paper No. 8, Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar
  467. Pigato, M. A. (2001). The Foreign Direct Investment Environment in Africa. Africa Region Working Paper No. 15, Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar
  468. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Jeong-Yeon, L. and Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). 'Common Method Biases in Behavioral Research: A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommended Remedies'. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
  469. Porter, M. E. (1980). Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors. New York: Free Press. Open Google Scholar
  470. Porter, M. E. (1985). Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance. New York: Free Press. Open Google Scholar
  471. Powell, T. C. (1996). 'How Much Does Industry Matter? An Alternative Empirical Test'. Strategic Management Journal, 17(4), 323–334. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199604)17:4<323::AID-SMJ803>3.0.CO;2-5
  472. Power, M. and Alves, A. C. (Eds.) (2012). China and Angola: A Marriage of Convenience? Cape Town: Pambazuka Press. Open Google Scholar
  473. Prabhakar, A. C. (2008). An Evaluation of Indian Joint-ventures in East Africa. Geneva: South Centre. Open Google Scholar
  474. Puck, J. F., Holtbrügge, D. and Mohr, A. T. (2009). 'Beyond Entry Mode Choice: Explaining the Conversion of Joint Ventures into Wholly Owned Subsidiaries in the People's Republic of China'. Journal of International Business Studies, 40(3), 388–404. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2008.56
  475. Puig, F., González-Loureiro, M. and Ghauri, P. N. (2014). 'Internationalisation for Survival: The Case of New Ventures'. Management International Review, 54(5), 653–673. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/s11575-014-0209-4
  476. Quin, S., Egesa, K. and Murad, H. (2013). Direct Reporting of Private Sector Cross-Border Financial Flows and Stocks in Selected African Countries. Technical Notes and Manuals No. 13/02, Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  477. Ramachandran, V. and Shah, M. K. (1999). 'Minority Entrepreneurs and Firm Performance in Sub-Saharan Africa'. Journal of Development Studies, 36(2), 71–87. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1080/00220389908422621
  478. Ramamurti, R. (2001). 'The Obsolescing 'Bargaining Model'? MNC-Host Developing Country Relations Revisited'. Journal of International Business Studies, 32(1), 23–39. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490936
  479. Ramanathan, R. (1995). Introductory Econometrics with Applications. 3rd Edition. Fort Worth: Dryden Press. Open Google Scholar
  480. Reuer, J. J. (2000). 'Parent firm performance across international joint venture life-cycle stages'. Journal of International Business Studies, 31(1), 1–20. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490890
  481. Roquebert, J. A., Phillips, R. L. and Westfall, P. A. (1996). 'Markets vs. Management: What ‘Drives’ Profitability?'. Strategic Management Journal, 17(8), 653–664. Open Google Scholar
  482. Rumelt, R. P. (1974). Strategy, Structure and Economic Performance. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Open Google Scholar
  483. Rumelt, R. P. (1991). 'How Much Does Industry Matter?'. Strategic Management Journal, 12(3), 167–185. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250120302
  484. Rumney, R. and Pingo, M. (2004). Mapping South Africa’s Trade and Investment in the Region. Paper presented at Conference “Stability, Poverty Reduction, and South African Trade and Investment in Southern Africa”, 29–30 March 2004 in Pretoria, South Africa. Open Google Scholar
  485. Rundell, S. (2010). Angola is latest investment magnet. African Business, June 2010, 24–26. Open Google Scholar
  486. Saunders, R. (2008). South African Investment in Africa: Restructuring and Resistance. Online at: http://www.africafiles.org/atissueezine.asp?issue=issue8#art1 (accessed on 8 July 2016). Open Google Scholar
  487. Schmalensee, R. (1985). 'Do Markets Differ Much?'. The American Economic Review, 75(3), 341–351. Open Google Scholar
  488. Schneider, F. and Frey, B. S. (1985). 'Economic and political determinants of foreign direct investment'. World Development, 13(2), 161–175. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(85)90002-6
  489. Schroath, F. W., Hu, M. Y. and Chen, H. (1993). 'Country-of-origin effects of foreign investments in the People's Republic of China'. Journal of International Business Studies, 24(2), 277–290. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490233
  490. Schroeder, R. A. (2008). South African Capital in the Land of Ujamaa: Contested Terrain in Tanzania. Online at: http://www.africafiles.org/atissueezine.asp?issue=issue8#art5 (accessed on 8 July 2016). Open Google Scholar
  491. Shan, W. (1991). 'Environmental Risks and Joint Venture Sharing Arrangements'. Journal of International Business Studies, 22(4), 555–578. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490314
  492. Shane, S., Venkataraman, S. and MacMillan, I. (1995). 'Cultural differences in Innovation Championing Strategies'. Journal of Management, 21(5), 931–952. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1177/014920639502100507
  493. Shaner, J. and Maznevski, M. (2011). 'The relationship between networks, institutional development, and performance in foreign investments'. Strategic Management Journal, 32(5), 556–568. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.903
  494. Sharife, K. (2010). 'Flying a Questionable Flag: Liberia's Lucrative Shipping Industry'. World Policy Journal, 27(4), 111–118. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1162/wopj.2011.27.4.111
  495. Shatz, H. J. and Venables, A. J. (2000). The Geography of International Investment. Policy Research Working Paper No. 2338, Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar
  496. Shaver, J. M. (1998). 'Accounting for Endogeneity When Assessing Strategy Performance: Does Entry Mode Choice Affect FDI Survival?'. Management Science, 44(4), 571–585. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.44.4.571
  497. Shen, X. (2013). Private Chinese Investment in Africa: Myths and Realities. Policy Research Working Paper No. 6311, Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar
  498. Shenkar, O. (2001). 'Cultural Distance Revisited: Towards a More Rigorous Conceptualization and Measurement of Cultural Differences'. Journal of International Business Studies, 32(3), 519–535. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490982
  499. Shrader, R. C. (2001). 'Collaboration and Performance in Foreign Markets: The Case of Young High-Technology Manufacturing Firms'. The Academy of Management Journal, 44(1), 45–60. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/3069336
  500. Sichei, M. M. and Kinyondo, G. (2012). 'Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: A Panel Data Analysis'. Global Journal of Management and Business Research, 12(18), 84–97. Open Google Scholar
  501. Simmonds, P. G. (1990). 'The Combined Diversification Breadth and Mode Dimensions and the Performance of Large Diversified Firms'. Strategic Management Journal, 11(5), 399–410. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250110506
  502. Siripaisalpipat, P. and Hoshino, Y. (2000). 'Firm-specific advantages, entry modes, and performance of Japanese FDI in Thailand'. Japan and the World Economy, 12(1), 33–48. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0922-1425(99)00025-0
  503. Skrondal, A. and Laake, P. (2001). 'Regression among factor scores'. Psychometrika, 66(4), 563–575. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/BF02296196
  504. Slangen, A. and Hennart, J.-F. (2007). 'Greenfield or acquisition entry: A review of the empirical foreign establishment mode literature'. Journal of International Management, 13(4), 403–429. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.intman.2007.08.001
  505. Slangen, A. and Hennart, J.-F. (2008). 'Do Foreign Greenfields Outperform Foreign Acquisitions or Vice Versa? An Institutional Perspective'. Journal of Management Studies, 45(7), 1301–1328. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2008.00794.x
  506. Song, J. (2002). 'Firm capabilities and technology ladders: sequential foreign direct investments of Japanese electronics firms in East Asia'. Strategic Management Journal, 23(3), 191–210. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.219
  507. Srivastava, R. K. and Green, R. T. (1986). 'Determinants of Bilateral Trade Flows'. The Journal of Business, 59(4), 623–640. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1086/296358
  508. Staritz, C. (2011). Making the Cut? Low-Income Countries and the Global Clothing Value Chain in a Post-Quota and Post-Crisis World. Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar
  509. Steensma, H. K., Barden, J. Q., Dhanaraj, C., Lyles, M. and Tihanyi, L. (2008). 'The Evolution and Internalization of International Joint Ventures in a Transitioning Economy'. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(3), 491–507. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400341
  510. Stephan, M. and Pfaffmann, E. (2001). 'Detecting the Pitfalls of Data on Foreign Direct Investment: Scope and Limits of FDI Data'. Management International Review, 41(2), 189–218. Open Google Scholar
  511. Stöttinger, B. and Schlegelmilch, B. B. (1998). 'Explaining export development through psychic distance: enlightening or elusive?'. International Marketing Review, 15(5), 357–372. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1108/02651339810236353
  512. Suliman, A. H. and Mollick, A. V. (2009). 'Human Capital Development, War and Foreign Direct Investment in Sub-Saharan Africa'. Oxford Development Studies, 37(1), 47–61. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1080/13600810802660828
  513. Tabachnick, B. G. and Fidell, L. S. (2006). Using Multivariate Statistics. 5th Edition. Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. Open Google Scholar
  514. Tallman, S. and Li, J. (1996). 'Effects of International Diversity and Product Diversity on the Performance of Multinational Firms'. The Academy of Management Journal, 39(1), 179–196. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/256635
  515. Tan, D. (2009). 'Foreign Market Entry Strategies and Post-Entry Growth: Acquisitions vs Greenfield Investments'. Journal of International Business Studies, 40(6), 1046–1063. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2009.1
  516. Tatoglu, E. and Glaister, K. W. (1998). 'Performance of international joint ventures in Turkey: perspectives of Western firms and Turkish firms'. International Business Review, 7(6), 635–656. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0969-5931(98)00031-6
  517. Taylor, C. R., Zou, S. and Osland, G. E. (1998). 'A Transaction Cost Perspective on Foreign Market Entry Strategies of US and Japanese Firms'. Thunderbird International Business Review, 40(4), 389–412. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/tie.4270400405
  518. Teece, D. J. (1984). 'Economic Analysis and Strategic Management'. California Management Review, 26(3), 84–110. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/41165082
  519. The Economist (2000). The hopeless continent. 13–19 May 2000 edition. Open Google Scholar
  520. The Economist (2012). African entrepreneurs: Parallel players. Article in 23–29 June 2012 edition, online at: http://www.economist.com/node/21557373 (accessed on 8 July 2016). Open Google Scholar
  521. The Economist (2013a). Africa rising: A hopeful continent. Article in 2–8 March 2013 edition. Open Google Scholar
  522. The Economist (2013b). Supermarkets in Africa: The grocers´ great trek. Article in 21–27 September 2013 edition. Open Google Scholar
  523. The Economist (2014). Dangote Group: Building on concrete foundations. Article in 12–18 April 2014 edition. Open Google Scholar
  524. Tihanyi, L., Griffith, D. A. and Russell, C. J. (2005). 'The effect of cultural distance on entry mode choice, international diversification, and MNE performance: a meta-analysis'. Journal of International Business Studies, 36(3), 270–283. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400136
  525. UNCTAD (1993). World Investment Report 1993: Transnational Corporations and Integrated International Production. New York: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  526. UNCTAD (1996). World Investment Report 1996: Investment, Trade and International Policy Arrangements. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  527. UNCTAD (1997). World Investment Report 1997: Transnational Corporations, Market Structure and Competition Policy. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  528. UNCTAD (1998). World Investment Report 1998: Trends and Determinants. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  529. UNCTAD (1999a). Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: Performance and Potential. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  530. UNCTAD (1999b). World Investment Report 1999: Foreign Direct Investment and the Challenge of Development. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  531. UNCTAD (2000). World Investment Report 2000: Cross-border Mergers and Acquisitions and Development. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  532. UNCTAD (2001). World Investment Report 2001: Promoting Linkages. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  533. UNCTAD (2002). World Investment Report 2002: Transnational Corporations and Export Competitiveness. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  534. UNCTAD (2003a). The African Growth and Opportunity Act: A Preliminary Assessment. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  535. UNCTAD (2003b). Foreign Direct Investment and Performance Requirements: New Evidence from Selected Countries. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  536. UNCTAD (2003c). Investment Policy Review: Lesotho. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  537. UNCTAD (2004a). Prospects for Foreign Direct Investment and the Strategies of Transnational Corporations, 2004–2007. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  538. UNCTAD (2004b). World Investment Report 2004: The Shift Towards Services. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  539. UNCTAD (2005a). Case study on outward foreign direct investment by Indian small and medium-sized enterprises. Document prepared by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Secretariat for the “Expert Meeting on Enhancing Productive Capacity of Developing Country Firms through Internationalization”, 5–7 December 2015 in Geneva, Switzerland. Open Google Scholar
  540. UNCTAD (2005b). Case study on outward foreign direct investment by South African enterprises. Document prepared by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Secretariat for the “Expert Meeting on Enhancing Productive Capacity of Developing Country Firms through Internationalization”, 5–7 December 2015 in Geneva, Switzerland. Open Google Scholar
  541. UNCTAD (2005c). Economic Development in Africa: Rethinking the Role of Foreign Direct Investment. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  542. UNCTAD (2005d). FDI Statistics: Data compilation and policy issues. Document prepared by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Secretariat for the “Expert Meeting on Capacity Building in the Area of FDI: Data Compilation and Policy Formulation in Developing Countries”, 12–14 December 2015 in Geneva, Switzerland. Open Google Scholar
  543. UNCTAD (2005e). World Investment Report 2005: Transnational Corporations and the Internationalization of R&D. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  544. UNCTAD (2006a). Measuring Restrictions on FDI in Services in Developing Countries and Transition Economies. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  545. UNCTAD (2006b). World Investment Report 2006: FDI from Developing and Transition Economies: Implications for Development. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  546. UNCTAD (2007a). Aftercare: A Core Function in Investment Promotion. Investment Advisory Series A, No. 1, New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  547. UNCTAD (2007b). World Investment Report 2007: Transnational Corporations, Extractive Industries and Development. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  548. UNCTAD (2008a). FDI and Tourism: The development dimension – East and Southern Africa. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  549. UNCTAD (2008b). World Investment Directory: Volume X – Africa. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  550. UNCTAD (2009a). The Role of International Investment Agreements in Attracting Foreign Direct Investment to Developing Countries. Geneva and New York: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  551. UNCTAD (2009b). UNCTAD Training Manual on Statistics for FDI and the Operations of TNCs – Volume I: FDI Flows and Stocks. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  552. UNCTAD (2009c). UNCTAD Training Manual on Statistics for FDI and the Operations of TNCs – Volume II: Statistics on the Operations of Transnational Corporations. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  553. UNCTAD (2009d). UNCTAD Training Manual on Statistics for FDI and the Operations of TNCs – Volume III: Collecting and Reporting FDI/TNC Statistics: Institutional Issues. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  554. UNCTAD (2009e). World Investment Prospect Survey 2009–2011. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  555. UNCTAD (2009f). World Investment Report 2009: Transnational Corporations, Agricultural Production and Development. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  556. UNCTAD (2010a). Economic Development in Africa Report 2010: South-South Cooperation: Africa and the New Forms of Development Partnership. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.18356/f75d9927-en
  557. UNCTAD (2010b). World Investment Report 2010: Investing in a Low-Carbon Economy. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  558. UNCTAD (2011a). Foreign Direct Investments in LDCs: Lessons Learned from the Decade 2001–2010 and the Way Forward. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  559. UNCTAD (2011b). World Investment Report 2011: Non-Equity Modes of International Production and Development. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  560. UNCTAD (2012a). World Investment Prospects Survey 2012–2014. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  561. UNCTAD (2012b). World Investment Report 2012: Towards a New Generation of Investment Policies. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.18356/68ad7468-en
  562. UNCTAD (2013a). Review of Maritime Transport 2013. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.18356/ec02acc9-en
  563. UNCTAD (2013b). World Investment Report 2013: Global Value Chains: Investment and Trade for Development. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.18356/f76b1ad0-en
  564. UNCTAD (2014a). The Impact of International Investment Agreements on Foreign Direct Investment: An Overview of Empirical Studies 1998–2014. IIA Issues Note September 2014, New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  565. UNCTAD (2014b). Review of Maritime Transport 2014. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.18356/e9e3b605-en
  566. UNCTAD (2014c). World Investment Prospects Survey 2014–2016. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.18356/9d7da2eb-en
  567. UNCTAD (2014d). World Investment Report 2014: Investing in the SDGs: An Action Plan. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  568. UNCTAD (2015a). Generalized System of Preferences: List of Beneficiaries. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar
  569. UNCTAD (2015b). World Investment Report 2015: Reforming International Investment Governance. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.18356/4f5603a5-en
  570. UNCTAD (2016). World Investment Report 2016: Investor Nationality – Policy Challenges. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.18356/9d7da2eb-en
  571. UNCTAD and UNDP (2007). Asian Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: Towards a New Era of Cooperation among Developing Countries. New York and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development and United Nations Development Programme. Open Google Scholar
  572. UNCTAD and UNIDO (2011). Economic Development in Africa Report 2011: Fostering Industrial Development in Africa in the New Global Environment. New York, Geneva and Vienna: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development and United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.18356/4bdf12f7-en
  573. UNECA (2006). Economic Report on Africa 2006: Capital Flows and Development Financing in Africa. Addis Ababa: United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. Open Google Scholar
  574. UNECA (2014). Frontier Markets in Africa: Misperceptions in a Sea of Opportunities. Note prepared by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa for the “US-Africa Leaders Summit 2014”, 4–6 August 2014 in Washington D.C., USA. Open Google Scholar
  575. UNIDO (2002a). Foreign Direct Investor Perceptions in Sub-Saharan Africa: UNIDO Pilot Survey in Ethiopia, Nigeria, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania. Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Open Google Scholar
  576. UNIDO (2002b). Industrial Development Report 2002/2003: Competing through Innovation and Learning. Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Open Google Scholar
  577. UNIDO (2003). Africa Foreign Investor Survey 2003: Motivations, Operations, Perceptions and Future plans – Implications for Investment Promotion. Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Open Google Scholar
  578. UNIDO (2005). Industrial Development Report 2005: Capability building for catching-up. Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Open Google Scholar
  579. UNIDO (2007). Africa Foreign Investor Survey 2005: Understanding the contributions of different investor categories to development – Implications for targeting strategies. 2nd Edition. Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Open Google Scholar
  580. UNIDO (2009). Industrial Development Report 2009: Breaking In and Moving Up: New Industrial Challenges for the Bottom Billion and the Middle-Income Countries. Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Open Google Scholar
  581. UNIDO (2010). The International Yearbook of Industrial Statistics 2010. Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization Open Google Scholar
  582. UNIDO (2012a). Africa Investor Report 2011: Towards Evidence-Based Investment Promotion Strategies. Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Open Google Scholar
  583. UNIDO (2012b). Tanzania Industrial Competitiveness Report 2012. Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Open Google Scholar
  584. UNIDO (2012c). Viet Nam Industrial Investment Report 2011: Understanding the Impact of Foreign Direct Investment on Industrial Development. Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Open Google Scholar
  585. UNIDO (2015a). Industrial Development Report 2016: The Role of Technology and Innovation in Inclusive and Sustainable Industrial Development. Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Open Google Scholar
  586. UNIDO (2015b). The International Yearbook of Industrial Statistics 2015. Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Open Google Scholar
  587. UNOSAA (2010). Africa’s Cooperation with New and Emerging Development Partners: Options for Africa’s Development. New York: United Nations Office of the Special Advisor on Africa. Open Google Scholar
  588. Urata, S. and Kawai, H. (2000). 'The Determinants of the Location of Foreign Direct Investment by Japanese Small and Medium-sized Enterprises'. Small Business Economics, 15(2), 79–103. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1023/A:1008173912813
  589. Van Biesebroeck, J. (2005). 'Exporting raises productivity in sub-Saharan African manufacturing firms'. Journal of International Economics, 67(2), 373–391. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.jinteco.2004.12.002
  590. Velicer, W. F. and Jackson, D. N. (1990). 'Component Analysis versus Common Factor Analysis: Some issues in Selecting an Appropriate Procedure'. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25(1), 1–28. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr2501_1
  591. Wacker, K. (2013). On the measurement of Foreign Direct Investment and its relationship to activities of multinational corporations. Working Paper No. 1614/November 2013, Frankfurt am Main: European Central Bank. Open Google Scholar
  592. Wall, M. M. and Li, R. (2003). 'Comparison of multiple regression to two latent variable techniques for estimation and prediction'. Statistics in Medicine, 22(23), 3671–3685. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/sim.1588
  593. Wang, H. and Schaan, J.-L. (2008). 'How much distance do we need? Revisiting the “National cultural distance paradox”'. Management International Review, 48(3), 263–278. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/s11575-008-0015-y
  594. Wang, J.-Y. (2007). What Drives China’s Growing Role in Africa? Working Paper 07/211, Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Open Google Scholar
  595. Wang, J.-Y. and Bio-Tchané, A. (2008). 'Africa’s Burgeoning Ties: Maximizing the benefits of China’s increasing economic engagement with Africa'. Finance & Development, 45(1), 44–47. Open Google Scholar
  596. Wei, L.-Q. and Lau, C.-M. (2008). 'The Impact of Market Orientation and Strategic HRM on Firm Performance: The Case of Chinese Enterprises'. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(6), 980–995. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400395
  597. Weiss, L. W. (1974). 'The concentration-profits relationship and antitrust'. In Goldschmid H. J., Mann, H. M. and Weston, J. F. (Eds.), Industrial Concentration: The New Learning. Boston: Little-Brown. 184–233. Open Google Scholar
  598. Wells, L. T. and Wint, A. G. (2000). Marketing a Country: Promotion as a Tool for Attracting Foreign Investment. Washington D.C.: Foreign Investment Advisory Service. Open Google Scholar
  599. Wernerfelt, B. (1984). 'A Resource-Based View of the Firm'. Strategic Management Journal, 5(2), 171–180. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250050207
  600. Wernerfelt, B. and Montgomery, C. A. (1988). 'Tobin's q and the Importance of Focus in Firm Performance'. The American Economic Review, 78(1), 246–250. Open Google Scholar
  601. West, J. and Graham, J. L. (2004). 'A Linguistic-based Measure of Cultural Distance and Its Relationship to Managerial Values'. Management International Review, 44(3), 239–260. Open Google Scholar
  602. Wheeler, D. and Mody, A. (1992). 'International investment location decisions: The case of U.S. firms'. Journal of International Economics, 33(1–2), 57–76. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/0022-1996(92)90050-T
  603. White, L. (2010). 'Understanding Brazil's new drive for Africa'. South African Journal of International Affairs, 17(2), 221–242. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2010.494345
  604. Wilkinson, T. J., Peng, G. Z., Brouthers, L. E. and Beamish, P. W. (2008). 'The diminishing effect of cultural distance on subsidiary control'. Journal of International Management, 14(2), 93–107. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.intman.2007.08.003
  605. Williams, C. and Lee, S. H. (2009). 'International management, political arena and dispersed entrepreneurship in the MNC'. Journal of World Business, 44(3), 287–299. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2008.11.008
  606. Williams, C. and Lee, S. H. (2011). 'Political Heterarchy and Dispersed Entrepreneurship in the MNC'. Journal of Management Studies, 48(6), 1243–1268. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2010.00996.x
  607. Williamson, O. E. (1975). Markets and Hierarchies: Analysis and Antitrust implications. New York: Free Press. Open Google Scholar
  608. Williamson, O. E. (1979). 'Transaction-Cost Economics: The Governance of Contractual Relations'. Journal of Law and Economics, 22(2), 233–261. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1086/466942
  609. Williamson, O. E. (1985). The Economic Institutions of Capitalism. New York: The Free Press. Open Google Scholar
  610. Williamson, O. E. (1991). 'Comparative Economic Organization: The Analysis of Discrete Structural Alternatives'. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36(2), 269–296. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/2393356
  611. Woertz, E., Pradhan, S., Biberovic, N. and Jingzhong, C. (2008). Potential for GCC Agro-investments in Africa and Central Asia. Dubai: Gulf Research Center. Open Google Scholar
  612. Woodcock, C. P., Beamish, P. W. and Makino, S. (1994). 'Ownership-Based Entry Mode Strategies and International Performance'. Journal of International Business Studies, 25(2), 253–273. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490200
  613. Woodward, D. P. and Rolfe, R. J. (1993). 'The Location of Export-Oriented Foreign Direct Investment in the Caribbean Basin'. Journal of International Business Studies, 24(1), 121–144. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490228
  614. World Bank (2009). Doing Business 2009. Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar
  615. World Bank, IFC and MIGA (2010). Investing Across Borders 2010: Indicators of Foreign Direct Investment Regulation in 87 Economies. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, International Finance Corporation and Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency. Open Google Scholar
  616. World Bank (2012). Chinese FDI in Ethiopia: A World Bank Survey. Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1596/26772
  617. World Bank (2013). Doing Business 2014: Understanding Regulations for Small and Medium-Size Enterprises. Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Open Google Scholar
  618. World Bank (2014). Foreign Direct Investment Flows into Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Online at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2014/03/19259750/foreign-direct-investment-flows-sub-saharan-africa (accessed on 8 July 2016). Open Google Scholar
  619. World Bank (2016). Enterprise Survey Database. Washington D.C.: World Bank Group. Online at: http://www.enterprisesurveys.org (accessed on 8 July 2016). Open Google Scholar
  620. World Economic Forum (2012). The Global Competitiveness Report 2012–2013. Geneva: World Economic Forum. Open Google Scholar
  621. Xu, D. and Lu, J. W. (2007). 'Technological knowledge, product relatedness, and parent control: The effect on IJV survival'. Journal of Business Research, 60(11), 1166–1176. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.08.008
  622. Xu, D., Pan, Y. and Beamish, P. W. (2004). 'The Effect of Regulative and Normative Distances on MNE Ownership and Expatriate Strategies'. Management International Review, 44(3), 285–307. Open Google Scholar
  623. Xu, D. and Shenkar, O. (2002). 'Institutional Distance and the Multinational Enterprise'. The Academy of Management Review, 27(4), 608–618. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/4134406
  624. Yackee, J. W. (2007). 'Do BITs Really Work? Revisiting the Empirical Link between Investment Treaties and Foreign Direct Investment'. Legal Studies Research Paper No. 1054, University of Wisconsin Law School. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1015083
  625. Yan, A. and Gray, B. (1994). 'Bargaining Power, Management Control, and Performance in United States-China Joint Ventures: A Comparative Case Study'. The Academy of Management Journal, 37(6), 1478–1517. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/256796
  626. Yan, A. and Zeng, M. (1999). 'International Joint Venture Instability: A Critique of Previous Research, a Reconceptualization, and Directions for Future Research'. Journal of International Business Studies, 30(2), 397–414. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490076
  627. Yasar, M., Paul, C. J. M. and Ward, M. R. (2011). 'Property Rights Institutions and Firm Performance: A Cross-Country Analysis'. World Development, 39(4), 648–661. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2010.09.009
  628. Yip, G. (1982). 'Diversification Entry: Internal Development versus Acquisition'. Strategic Management Journal, 3(4), 331–345. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250030405
  629. Yli-Renko, H., Autio, E. and Tontti, V. (2002). 'Social capital, knowledge, and the international growth of technology-based new firms'. International Business Review, 11(3), 279–304. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0969-5931(01)00061-0
  630. Yumkella, K. K., Kormawa, P. M., Roepstorff, T. M. and Hawkins, A. M. (Eds.) (2011). Agribusiness for Africa´s prosperity. Vienna: United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Open Google Scholar
  631. Zacharakis, A. L. (1997). 'Entrepreneurial Entry Into Foreign Markets: A Transaction Cost Perspective'. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 21(3), 23–39. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1177/104225879702100302
  632. Zafar, A. (2007). 'The Growing Relationship Between China and Sub-Saharan Africa: Macroeconomic, Trade, Investment, and Aid Links'. The World Bank Research Observer, 22(1), 103–130. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkm001
  633. Zahra, S. A. (2004). 'A theory of international new ventures: a decade of research'. Journal of International Business Studies, 36(1), 20–28. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400118
  634. Zahra, S. A., Ireland, R. D. and Hitt, M. A. (2000). 'International Expansion by New Venture Firms: International Diversity, Mode of Market Entry, Technological Learning, and Performance'. The Academy of Management Journal, 43(5), 925–950. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.2307/1556420
  635. Zhan, J. J. (2006). FDI Statistics: A Critical Review and Policy Implications. Geneva: World Association of Investment Promotion Agencies (WAIPA). Open Google Scholar
  636. Zhao, H., Luo, Y. and Suh, T. (2004). 'Transaction cost determinants and ownership-based entry mode choice: a meta-analytical review'. Journal of International Business Studies, 35(6), 524–544. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400106
  637. Zhao, H. and Zhu, G. (1998). 'Determinants of ownership preference of international joint ventures: new evidence from Chinese manufacturing industries'. International Business Review, 7(6), 569–589. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1016/S0969-5931(98)00032-8
  638. Zhao, X. and Decker, R. (2005). 'Modeling SMEs’ Choice of Foreign Market Entry: Joint Venture vs. Wholly Owned Venture'. Operations Research Proceedings 2004, 221–229. Open Google Scholar doi.org/10.1007/3-540-27679-3_28
  639. Zschoche, M. (2015). 'The Effects of Foreign Direct Investment Colocation: Differences Between Manufacturing and Service Firms'. Managerial and Decision Economics, Early online publication: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mde.2730/abstract (accessed on 8 July 2016). Open Google Scholar

Similar publications

from the topics "Economics", "International Organizations & NGOs", "Competition Policy & Economic Order Policy & Economic Policy"
Cover of book: Weltbilder und Weltordnung
Educational Book No access
Gert Krell, Peter Schlotter, Alexandra Homolar, Frank A. Stengel
Weltbilder und Weltordnung
Cover of book: Kapital als Medium
Book Titles No access
Michael Mayer
Kapital als Medium
Cover of book: Le sanzioni dell’UE nei confronti della Russia tra sicurezza internazionale e diritti umani
Edited Book No access
Antonino Alì
Le sanzioni dell’UE nei confronti della Russia tra sicurezza internazionale e diritti umani
Cover of book: European Union, How Comes?
Book Titles No access
Hartmut Marhold
European Union, How Comes?

Notice

This work is protected by copyright and may only be used in accordance with the provisions of the Terms of Use and License Agreement. Any use of the work beyond this is expressly prohibited and will be prosecuted.

Give feedback

We welcome your feedback on content and features. Your message helps us to continuously improve our service.

Rating
Attach images
or drag and drop
PNG or JPG (max. 3 MB)

Login

Forgotten your password?
Login via Open Athens
Don't have an account yet?
Register now

Cite publication

Download: RIS BibTex