integration

Since the European Council granted Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova the accession candidate status, the two countries have been seen as a couple in their integration process towards the European Union (EU). This is reflected in parallel decisions...

The European Union (EU) aims to achieve climate neutrality by 2050. However, the case of hydrogen illustrates that EU climate policy is characterised by a tension between two climate policy paradigms. Decarbonisation follows an emissions-centred...

In 2022, the European Commission proposed the so-called Sustainable Use Regulation (SUR) to replace the existing directive on the use of pesticides. Among other elements, the proposal included an overall reduction in pesticide use by 50 percent...

The article argues that the so‑called rules-based international order is not a natural state but a historically contingent product of U.S. power. Its effectiveness has always depended on America’s willingness and capacity to guarantee and...

Since 2022, defence policy in some Member States and within the European Union (EU) itself has undergone a fundamental transformation. In the past, the weak development of the Common Security and Defence Policy has often been attributed to the...

This article analyses the European Green Deal (EGD) as a transformation project under changing political and economic conditions. It advances the argument that the viability of the European Union’s (EU) climate governance beyond the 2030 horizon...

This article analyses the development of the office of the EU High Representative/Vice-President of the European Commission (HR/VP) in the geopolitical era. Three structural shifts have shaped the scope for action since its inception in 2009: the...

How can a modern industrial policy be reconciled with the principles of the social market economy? The article argues for a competition-compliant industrial policy that is coordinated at the European level and guided by market principles. It should...

The European Union (EU) faces growing geopolitical challenges to its security architecture. We analyse the securitisation of policy issues by European Commissioners in 1,619 speeches given between 2024 and 2025. At the sentence level (n=98,940), we...

Cross-border health policy is one of the European Union's (EU) least communitarised policy areas. The European treaties largely preclude legal harmonisation in this policy area. The organisation and financing of national health care systems remain...

In addition to the European Union (EU) and NATO, the European security architecture is largely shaped by numerous bilateral and multilateral security and defence agreements. However, these agreements have received little attention in research. This...

Right-wing populist governments have become a common reality in the member states of the European Union (EU). This article aims to deepen our understanding on the systemic challenges they pose on intergovernmental decision-making and identify...

In the light of rapidly rising imports of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) produced in China, massive Chinese state support for the industry, and the build-up of overcapacities, the European Commission launched an investigation into Chinese...

The digital euro is more than just another means of payment. The digitisation of money, like the digitisation of media, photos, or videos before, unlocks enormous potential for innovation. This promotes Europe’s goals far beyond the monetary...

This article attempts to explore how Germany’s self-identification as a defender of the fundamental values of the European Union (EU) shapes its stance towards the accession negotiations between the EU and Turkey. It argues that, when defining the...

In 2019, Ursula von der Leyen declared “a union of equality” to be a priority of her presidency. During the term of her first Commission (2019–2024), a quantum leap in equality and anti-discrimination policy was thus initiated with five...

In July 2025, the European Commission presented its proposal for the European Union’s (EU) 2028–2034 multiannual financial framework. In this context, new regulations for cohesion policy will also have to be adopted. It is becoming apparent that...

Donald Trump’s second U.S. presidency marks a turning point for Europe. The United States is no longer a reliable security guarantor, trading partner, or defender of the rules-based international order. Aggressive tariff policies, growing...

The European Council is one of, if not, the key institution of the European Union (EU). Founded about 50 years ago, in December 1974, it comprises the Heads of State or Government of the member states, thus linking the national and European levels....

With the Treaty of Lisbon, the European Council became an institution of the European Union (EU) that is fully integrated into the institutional framework. In this way, the originally intergovernmental institution was linked to the supranational...

This contribution analyses the role of the European Council in the foreign and security policy of the European Union (EU) as both the architect of the system of external action and the provider of guidelines for policies in trade, enlargement,...

This article is a proposal to distinguish major periods in the history of the European Council since its founding in 1974: the period before, starting with the European Coal and Steel Community (1951–1974); then its informal incubation period...